Very little can be said about the position of adverbs without considering individual lexical items, Adverbs can occur in almost any position in a sentence or-a clause, though various adverbs may have preferred positions. These preferred positions can be referred to as initial (i.e. before the subject of the clause), middle (i.e. before the main verb–except be–or after the first auxiliary verb), and end (after the verb, and usually after a direct object if there is one). In general, one can say that adverbs of place, manner, means, and instrument, as well as longer adverbials consisting of prepositional or noun phrases or clauses, tend to occur in end position, e.g.:
He was talking loudly.
He came in through the back door.
Initial position is usual for sentence adverbials, or what Quirk et al. call "disjuncts" (1972:§8.78-88)–i.e. words or phrases that modify the sentence as a whole rather than any particular part of it and constitute the speaker's comment on what he is saying, e.g.:
Frankly, I think you're full of prunes.
Unfortunately he was too drunk to drive.
When several adverbs occur simultaneously, the order is usually: process (means, manner or instrument), place, time. In the case of more than one time adverbial, the usual order is: duration, frequency, time when. For example:
You behaved pretty unsociably (manner) at Bill's (place) last night (time)
I was there for three hours (duration)/every day (frequency)/last week (time when)
Adverbs of time also generally occur in end position, though adverbs of indefinite frequency (generally, never, usually, always, etc.) more often have middle position, e.g.:
My father always goes to bed early. (indefinite frequency)
My father only went to bed early once. (definite frequency)
There are so many exceptions to these rules, though, that the most effective approach is to consider each adverb or adverbial phrase individually.
a bit
A bit favors end position, after a direct object, but may precede a prepositional phrase, e.g.:
We talked a bit about our philosophy.
We talked about our philosophy a bit.
These two sentences are more or less interchangeable, but since the adverb may be understood to apply only to the immediately preceding part of the sentence, the second version may be more likely if there is an implication that subjects other than philosophy were talked about as well.
already
Already prefers middle position, i.e. after the first auxiliary in (2), i.e. can. Less commonly, particularly in short sentences, it can take end position, e.g.:
They're on the plane already.
They're already on the plane.
always
Always also takes middle position. Initial or end position is not likely:
*Always I come here.
I come here always.
apparently
Apparently is a sentence adverb and as such most often has initial position, but can appear in almost any position. The only position in (5) in which it can not occur is between the verb and the direct object, but even this is possible if it is separated from the rest of the clause with commas and intonation:
He apparently needs help.
Apparently(,) he needs help.
He needs help, apparently.
He needs, apparently, some sort of help
as well
As well normally follows the part of the sentence which is being modified or focused on. Since in (1) it is the entire clause which is modified, end position is called for. Other positions in this sentence, with appropriate stress and intonation, would imply a contrast, e.g. the usage of adverbs as opposed to nouns or verbs:
The usage, as well, of adverbs should be better.
The usage of 'adverbs, as well, should be better.
briefly
As an adverb of time (duration) briefly takes end position. In (7) end position is after the first infinitive clause, since go is the verb being modified. If it is the main verb which is being modified, briefly would appear immediately after the verb. Thus there is a difference between
He explained briefly that he wanted to o to England (i.e. his explanation was brief).
and
He explained that he wanted to go to England briefly (i.e. he planned a brief visit).
earlier
Earlier has end position, which means in the case of (2) after the subject complement (old), and in (1) after the place adverbial at home. (2) illustrates the general rule that when several adverbs occur together the order is process (i.e. manner, means or instrument)-place-time. This general rule is often broken, however, depending on which adverbial receives more emphasis and on the relative length of the adverbials. For example, because of the relative length of the place adverbial, either of the following sentences are acceptable:
I arrived at the corner of Maple and Main earlier than you (place + time)
I arrived earlier than you at the corner of Maple and Main (time + place)
But I arrived earlier than you there is questionable. Furthermore, at home in (1) is also a complement of the verb be, and it is very uncommon for an adverb to come between a verb and its complement.
especially
Especially usually precedes the part of the sentence it modifies or focuses on, though it may also follow. The most likely position in (1) and (2), then, is before speaking and for them, respectively. Especially can modify and precede a verb, but then the meaning is slightly different than in (1) and (2). Compare:
This car was (e)specially built for handicapped drivers.
This car was built especially for handicapped drivers
The first sentence means that the car is constructed in a particular fashion, namely, to suit the needs of the handicapped. One might infer this from the second sentence also, but not necessarily, since the literal meaning is not that the car was constructed in a particular way, but that one of the particular reasons for its construction had to do with the handicapped. In other words, once would assume from the second sentence, but not from the first, that the car was also built for other than handicapped people.
even
Even normally has middle position, unless it modifies a particular word in the sentence (which then receives special stress). As it stands, even in (1) emphasizes the fact that no one knows the truth of the matter–"not even you. The intended meaning, expressed by you don't even know, is to emphasize the fact that there are many things you don't know, including this particular thing. Even would not occur between the verb and direct object, though, except to emphasize a gradable adjective. Compare with (2):
In some states you've even got outdated laws.
In some states you've got even more outdated laws
In the first sentence even indicates that it is rather surprising that there are outdated laws in some states. In the second sentence it indicates surprise that laws in some states are more outdated than the other outdated laws which have already been mentioned.
frankly
Frankly is a sentence adverb and normally has initial or end position, isolated from the rest of the clause with commas and intonation, but can be integrated within the clause with verbs of belief or opinion. Have to say is not such a verb, but compare:
I frankly don't think it's true.
= Frankly, I don't think it's true.
Since sentence adverbs indicate the speaker's comment or attitude regarding the content of the sentence, they can be integrated in clause structure only if the speaker is also the subject of the clause:
He frankly thinks you're wrong.
is not the same as
Frankly, he thinks you're wrong
just
Just has middle position, but normally precedes the auxiliary in negative verb constructions. When just doesn't precede the negative auxiliary verb, the main verb has contrastive stress; compare with (2):
If I had a job on the Bahamas, I wouldn't just work (i.e. I would do other things as well).
In (2) contrastive stress was not intended, but in (1) the intended implication was: 'Not just (only) by coincidence, but it was planned that way.' If this were not the intended meaning, either of the following would be correct:
This just isn't so.
This is just not so.
These alternatives illustrate a further point. When not is not abbreviated (i.e. receives normal word stress), just may either precede be (or the first auxiliary if there is more than one verb) or follow it (the latter being the usual middle position). This would be true in the case of (2) as well, if not were stressed:
If there was no danger of being fired, too many people just wouldn't work/would just not work.
nearly
Nearly has middle position, but (like just) precedes a negative verb phrase:
I nearly hit it.
I can nearly hit it.
I nearly didn't hit it.
If it modifies a particular word in the sentence, though, as in (1), it precedes that word. Almost behaves in the same way:
People today can buy nearly/almost everything they want.
Less commonly, end position is possible:
People today can buy everything they want, nearly/almost.
occasionally
Occasionally most often occurs in middle or end position:
I see him occasionally.
I occasionally see him.
But, particularly with negative verbs, initial or pre-auxiliary position is required:
Occasionally I didn't see him.
I occasionally didn't see him.
In (1) almost any position is possible, except between the verb and its complement:
Occasionally, I've been in touch with native speakers.
I've occasionally been in touch with native speakers.
I've been in touch occasionally with native speakers.
I've been in touch with native speakers occasionally.
When two or more time adverbials occur in the same clause in end position, the order is duration–frequency–when.
Since high school is time when, and occasionally is time frequency,
I've been in touch with native speakers occasionally since high school.
is much more likely than
I've been in touch with native speakers since high school occasionally.
only
Only usually has middle, position, but may precede–or occasionally follow–a particular part of the sentence it modifies, which then receives special stress. In colloquial speech only tends to remain in middle position, where it can be interpreted as modifying any following stressed element of the predicate (which is normally the last word). In writing or formal style only may be moved to immediately precede or follow the modified (stressed):word, thus removing any possible ambiguity, e.g.:
You have only heard her opinion. (i.e. not read it)
You have only heard her opinion. (no one else's)
You have only heard her opinion. (not her objective statement)
If only modifies the subject it normally precedes it, though if both words are stressed it may occasionally follow:
Only you/You only have heard her opinion (i.e. no one else has).
So, with the proper stress. (1) could be acceptable as meaning 'Only you have heard the opinion of (only) one person' (requiring emphatic stress on one as well), but this was not the intended meaning. The author meant that the person addressed should not rely too much on what another person has told her, because there are other people who probably have different opinions as to what the truth is. In this case there are three possibilities:
You have only heard the opinion of one person.
You have heard the opinion of only one person.
You have heard the opinion of one person only.
The latter two versions, however, imply more strongly than the first that there are definitely a number of other people whose opinions will or should be heard-an emphasis which the author in this instance probably did not intend.
perfectly
Perfectly has end position, which in (1) means after the prepositional phrase for themselves.
probably
Probably normally has middle position, though end position is not uncommon. It precedes a negative verb:
Such pupils probably become aggressive.
Such pupils become aggressive, probably.
Such pupils probably don't become aggressive.
sometimes
Sometimes occurs with about equal frequency in initial, middle and end positions:
Sometimes you can see men doing this.
You can sometimes see men doing this.
You can see men doing this, sometimes.
If it were not for the fact that the participial clause in (1) has its own adverbial of frequency (all the time), sometimes could precede or follow the clause:
You can see them running around sometimes, kissing strange women.
You can see them running around kissing strange women sometimes.
though
Though can be either a subordinate conjunction equivalent to although, or an adverb equivalent to however, e.g.:
Although/Though he was poor, he was happy.
He was poor. He was happy, though/however.
In the latter function, though can occur between major clause constituents, isolated by commas and intonation, but not normally after a pronominal subject. Compare with (23):
I want to say that there are exceptions, though.
I want to say, though, that there are exceptions.
I, though, want to say that there are exceptions.
The last sentence is only possible with contrastive stress on I (I, and not John, was the one to point this out).
With regard to the use of being in (1), see 8.8.
too much
It is not clear, first of all, whether much in (1)is functioning as an adverb or a pronoun, that is, as in
We talked too much (adverb)
or
We ate too much (pronoun)
If the latter, it must be modified by a prepositional phrase: too much of these pork things. If it is an adverb, with a meaning equivalent to often, it must occur in end position. Unlike often, much does not occur in middle position:
Do you often/*much do that?
Do you do that often/much?
It's true that we too often/*too much eat these
pork things.
well
Well meaning 'thoroughly' usually occurs in end position. With know, however, there is a possibility of confusion with the usually parenthetic expression as I/you well know, in which well has a purely emphatic meaning equivalent to certainly or indeed, e.g.:
He's not here, as you (very) well know.
The meaning in (1), though, is 'thoroughly,' and therefore the adverbial follows the verb and direct object.