The TOK course provides students with an opportunity to explore and reflect on the nature of

knowledge and the process of knowing. It is a core element of the DP to which schools are required to

devote at least 100 hours of class time.

In TOK, students reflect on the knowledge, beliefs and opinions that they have built up from their years of

academic studies and their lives outside the classroom. The course is intended to be challenging and

thought-provoking—as well as empowering—for students.

The course centres on the exploration of knowledge questions, which are a key tool for both teachers

and students. These are contestable questions about knowledge itself, such as: “What counts as good

evidence for a claim?”, “Are some types of knowledge less open to interpretation than others?”, or “What

constraints should there be on the pursuit of knowledge?”. While these questions may initially seem slightly

intimidating, they become much more accessible when considered with reference to specific examples

within the TOK course.

The TOK curriculum is made up of three deeply interconnected parts.

• The core theme—Knowledge and the knower: This theme encourages students to reflect on

themselves as knowers and thinkers, and to consider the different communities of knowers to which

we belong.

• Optional themes: This element provides an opportunity to take a more in-depth look at two themes

of particular interest to teachers and students. The given themes all have a significant impact on the

world today and play a key role in shaping people’s perspectives and identities. Teachers select two

optional themes from a choice of five: knowledge and technology; knowledge and language;

knowledge and politics; knowledge and religion; and knowledge and indigenous societies.

• Areas of knowledge: The areas of knowledge (AOK) are specific branches of knowledge, each of

which can be seen to have a distinct nature and sometimes use different methods of gaining

knowledge. In TOK, students explore five compulsory areas of knowledge: history; the human sciences;

the natural sciences; mathematics; and the arts.

To help teachers and students explore these three parts of the TOK curriculum, guidance and suggested

knowledge questions are provided. These suggested knowledge questions are organized into a framework

of four elements: scope, perspectives, methods and tools, and ethics. This "knowledge framework"

encourages a deep exploration of each theme and AOK. Having these common elements run throughout

the different parts of the curriculum also helps to unify the course and helps students to make effective

connections and comparisons across the different themes and areas of knowledge.

There are two assessment tasks in the TOK course.

• The TOK exhibition assesses the ability of the student to show how TOK manifests in the world

around us. The exhibition is an internal assessment component; it is marked by the teacher and is

externally moderated by the IB.

• The TOK essay engages students in a more formal and sustained piece of writing in response to a title

focused on the areas of knowledge. The essay is an external assessment component; it is marked by IB

examiners. The essay must be a maximum of 1,600 words and must be on one of the six prescribed

titles issued by the IB for each examination session.

The TOK course can be structured in a variety of ways and can start from a variety of different entry

points. Teachers are encouraged to exercise flexibility, creativity and innovation in the design and delivery

of their TOK course, and to provide a diverse range of examples that meet the specific needs and interests

of their own students. 

Nature of the Subject 

The TOK course plays a special role in the DP by providing an opportunity for students to reflect on the

nature, scope and limitations of knowledge and the process of knowing. In this way, the main focus of TOK

is not on students acquiring new knowledge but on helping students to reflect on, and put into

perspective, what they already know.

TOK underpins and helps to unite the subjects that students encounter in the rest of their DP studies. It

engages students in explicit reflection on how knowledge is arrived at in different disciplines and areas of

knowledge, on what these areas have in common and the differences between them. It is intended that

through this holistic approach, discussions in one area will help to enrich and deepen discussions in other

areas.

The course is an opportunity for teachers and students to engage in interesting conversations that cross the

boundaries of individual disciplines and that help students to reflect on the knowledge they have acquired

from both their academic studies and their lives outside the classroom. Students are encouraged to

examine the evidence for claims and to consider, for example, how we distinguish fact from opinion, or

how we evaluate the credibility of claims that we are exposed to in the media. They explore different

methods and tools of inquiry and try to establish what it is about them that makes them effective, as well as

considering their limitations.

The following 12 concepts have particular prominence within, and thread throughout, the TOK course:

evidence, certainty, truth, interpretation, power, justification, explanation, objectivity, perspective,

culture, values and responsibility. Exploration of the relationship between knowledge and these concepts

can help students to deepen their understanding, as well as facilitating the transfer of their learning to new

and different contexts.

The TOK course embraces the exploration of tensions, limitations and challenges relating to knowledge and

knowing. However, it is also intended that TOK discussions will encourage students to appreciate and be

inspired by the richness of human knowledge—and to consider the positive value of different kinds of

knowledge. Consideration should be given to the benefits of this kind of reflection on knowledge and

knowing; for example, in terms of its potential to help us think more subtly, to be more aware of our

assumptions, or to overcome prejudice and promote intercultural understanding.

Knowledge in TOK

Knowledge is the raw material of the TOK course. Throughout the TOK course, there should be ongoing

conversations about the nature, scope and limits of knowledge. However, a detailed technical philosophical

investigation into the nature of knowledge is not appropriate in a TOK course. For example, there is no

expectation that TOK students will be familiar with specific philosophers or philosophical texts. However, it

is useful for students to have a rough working idea of what is meant by “knowledge” at the outset of the

course—this can then become more refined throughout the discussions.

There are various ways of thinking about knowledge, but one useful way to help students think about

knowledge in TOK can be through the metaphor of knowledge as a map. Since a map is a simplified

representation of the world, items that are not relevant to the purpose of the map are left out. For example,

we would not expect to find detailed street names on a map of a city metro system. This metaphor can help

students to see the importance of considering the context in which knowledge has been sought and

constructed.

A metaphor such as this can support rich discussions about knowledge and accuracy, about how

knowledge grows and changes, and about the difference between producing and using knowledge. It can

also prompt interesting wider reflections on the cultural assumptions behind our understanding of what

maps are or should be, or the way that the cartographer’s perspective is reflected in a map. Maps and

knowledge are produced by, and in turn produce, a particular perspective.

TOK and international-mindedness

The term “international-mindedness” is used by the IB to refer to a way of thinking, being and acting

characterized by an openness to the world and a recognition of our deep interconnectedness to others.

The TOK course places a great deal of emphasis on elements that are central to the development of

international- mindedness. For example, it encourages students to consider the diversity and richness of

different perspectives, as well as exploring the interdependent influence of knowledge and culture.

The course encourages students to be curious about, and to think deeply and carefully about, complicated

issues. It encourages students to avoid shallow and polarized thinking, and to avoid making quick

judgments. It highlights that sometimes there really are no simple answers, and “that tensions between

conflicting points of view have to be lived with, argued about and frequently left unresolved” (Walker 2004:

135).

Through their explorations in TOK, students are encouraged to discover and articulate their own views on

knowledge. They are encouraged to share their ideas with others, and to listen to and learn from what

others think. Through this process of dialogue and discussion, their own understanding is enriched and

deepened as they become more engaged with different beliefs, values and experiences, as well as with

alternative ways of answering questions.

TOK also challenges students to be intellectual risk-takers and to question what they hold to be true. In this

way, it encourages intellectual humility and encourages students to gain and apply their knowledge with

greater awareness and responsibility. Reflecting on how we may be wrong and how the world may seem to

someone else helps students to become more aware of the assumptions and values that influence our

thoughts and actions. In this way, the course helps students to reflect on their growing understanding of

themselves and of the world around them.

Aims

The aims of the TOK course are:

• to encourage students to reflect on the central question, “How do we know that?”, and to recognize

the value of asking that question

• to expose students to ambiguity, uncertainty and questions with multiple plausible answers

• to equip students to effectively navigate and make sense of the world, and help prepare them to

encounter novel and complex situations

• to encourage students to be more aware of their own perspectives and to reflect critically on their own

beliefs and assumptions

• to engage students with multiple perspectives, foster open-mindedness and develop intercultural

understanding

• to encourage students to make connections between academic disciplines by exploring underlying

concepts and by identifying similarities and differences in the methods of inquiry used in different

areas of knowledge

• to prompt students to consider the importance of values, responsibilities and ethical concerns relating

to the production, acquisition, application and communication of knowledge.

Assessment objectives

Having completed the TOK course, students should be able to:

• demonstrate TOK thinking through the critical examination of knowledge questions

• identify and explore links between knowledge questions and the world around us

• identify and explore links between knowledge questions and areas of knowledge

• develop relevant, clear and coherent arguments

• use examples and evidence effectively to support a discussion

• demonstrate awareness and evaluation of different points of view

• consider the implications of arguments and conclusions.

Knowledge questions

The TOK curriculum centres around the exploration of knowledge questions. Knowledge questions are

crucial to effective TOK discussions as they help to make sure that students are focusing on questions about

knowledge itself and about how we know things. Knowledge questions help students to move beyond

subject-specific questions or specific real-life situations into the realm of TOK.

Knowledge questions are questions about knowledge—about how knowledge is produced, acquired,

shared and used; what it is and what it is not; who has it and who does not; and who decides the answers to

these questions. Instead of focusing on subject-specific content or specific examples, students focus on

how knowledge is constructed and evaluated. In this sense, knowledge questions are distinct from many of

the questions that students encounter in their other subjects.

Knowledge questions are contestable in that there are a number of plausible answers to them. Dealing

with these open contestable questions is a key feature of TOK, although some students can find the lack of

a single “right” answer slightly disorienting. In TOK discussions, it is perfectly conceivable that answers to a

question may differ—what matters is that the analysis is thorough, accurate and effectively supported by

examples and evidence.

Knowledge questions also draw on TOK concepts and terminology, rather than using subject-specific

terminology or specific examples. Knowledge questions draw on central TOK concepts such as evidence,

certainty, values, and interpretation.

Knowledge questions underlie much of the knowledge that we take for granted and are often the

motivation for many disagreements and controversies. Exploration of knowledge questions can therefore

help us to have a deeper understanding of how knowledge is constructed and evaluated in different areas,

as well as helping us to make sense of the world around us.

Knowledge questions are the key tool for teaching and learning in TOK. The two assessment tasks—the

TOK exhibition and TOK essay—centre on the exploration of knowledge questions as both the Internal

Assessment (IA) prompts and the prescribed essay titles take the form of knowledge questions. It is

therefore crucial that students engage with the exploration and discussion of knowledge questions

throughout the TOK course.

Examples of knowledge questions

Knowledge questions play a crucial role in helping students to move beyond subject specific questions or

specific real-life situations into TOK discussions that are focused explicitly on knowledge.

Throughout this guide, examples of knowledge questions are suggested for each of the themes and areas

of knowledge. In order to encourage and support students in making comparisons and connections across

different elements of the course, the knowledge questions suggested for each theme and area of

knowledge are organized into a “knowledge framework” consisting of four common elements: scope,

perspectives, methods and tools, and ethics.

These four elements provide a structure to help students explore and analyse the different aspects of the

course, as well as providing a common vocabulary to help encourage comparisons and connections. They

can also provide a useful starting point to help non-TOK teachers make links to TOK in their other DP

subjects.

The knowledge questions suggested in this guide for each theme and area of knowledge are suggested

examples only; they are not prescriptive. Teachers are free to explore the themes and areas of knowledge

using a variety of different examples and knowledge questions of their choice. However, teachers are

required to ensure that, within their discussions of each theme and area of knowledge, they include

discussion of examples and knowledge questions that relate to each of the four elements.

Scope

This element focuses on exploring the nature and scope of the different themes and areas of knowledge. It

explores how each theme/area of knowledge fits within the totality of human knowledge, and also

considers the nature of the problems that each theme/area of knowledge faces and tries to address.

Examples of knowledge questions relating to scope include the following.

• What motivates the pursuit of knowledge in these themes/areas of knowledge?

• What practical problems can be solved through the application of knowledge from these themes/

areas of knowledge?

• What are the key current open/unanswered questions in these themes/areas of knowledge?

• What makes this theme/area of knowledge important?

Perspectives

This element focuses on the importance and influence of perspectives and context. This includes reflection

on the students’ own perspectives and what informs them, as well as how different people or groups view

or approach knowledge in the different themes/areas of knowledge. It also includes reflection on historical

perspectives and how knowledge changes over time.

Examples of knowledge questions relating to perspectives include the following.

• What is the significance of key historical developments within these themes/areas of knowledge?

• What do these themes/areas of knowledge identify about knowledge that is rooted in particular

social and cultural groups?

• Are some types of knowledge less open to interpretation than others?

• Is an understanding of the perspective of other knowers essential in the pursuit of knowledge?

Methods and Tools

This element focuses on exploring the methods, tools and practices that we use to produce knowledge.

This includes the building of conceptual frameworks, the establishing of traditions and practices, as well as

the methodologies employed by formal disciplines. It also includes consideration of the cognitive and

material tools that we have available to help us in the pursuit of knowledge, and of how these tools have

changed as a result of technological developments.

Examples of knowledge questions relating to methods and tools include the following.

• What assumptions underlie the methods of inquiry used in these themes/areas of knowledge?

• Does what is seen to constitute “good evidence” vary from discipline to discipline and culture to

culture? How is knowledge produced and communicated in these themes/areas of knowledge?

• How important are material tools in the production and acquisition of knowledge?

Ethics

This element focuses on exploring ethics and the ethical considerations that have an impact on inquiry in

the different themes and areas of knowledge. This includes aspects such as the relationship between facts

and values, and how ethical and epistemic values are built into the quest for knowledge. It also includes

questions relating to knowledge and inequality and injustice. It is crucial that TOK discussions about ethics

focus on the knowledge questions that are woven into, and implied, in the ethical issues being discussed,

rather than the focus being on debating the ethical issues themselves.

Examples of knowledge questions relating to ethics include the following.

• Should the pursuit of knowledge in these themes/areas of knowledge be subject to ethical

constraints?

• What responsibilities rest on the knower as a result of their knowledge in these themes/areas of

knowledge?

• How can we know when we should act on what we know?

• Do established values change in the face of new knowledge?

Core Theme - Knowledge and Knower

The core theme—knowledge and the knower—provides an opportunity for students to reflect on what

shapes their perspective as a knower, where their values come from, and how they make sense of, and

navigate, the world around them.

Importantly, this theme does not focus exclusively on the individual knower. It also considers aspects such

as the impact of the different communities of knowers to which we belong, and how knowledge is constructed, critically examined, evaluated and renewed by communities and individuals. This includes

reflection on how our interactions with others and with the material world shape our knowledge.

This theme encourages careful and critical consideration of claims, provoking students to reflect on how we

distinguish between claims that are contestable and claims that are not. It highlights the importance of not

simply accepting claims at face value, and then explores how this can be reconciled with a recognition that

many situations require us to make decisions without possessing absolute certainty.

Scope

• What criteria can we use to distinguish between knowledge, belief and

• opinion?

• How do we distinguish claims that are contestable from claims that are not?

• Are there situations where “knowing how” is more important than “knowing that”?

• Why should we care about acquiring knowledge?

• Why are the criteria for what counts as knowledge not obvious?

• Can other people know us better than we know ourselves?

• How do our interactions with the material world shape our knowledge?

Perspectives

What shapes my perspective as a knower?

• How much of our knowledge depends on our interactions with other knowers?

• Is the truth what the majority of people accept?

• How do empathy and imagination help us to understand other perspectives?

• Presented with the belief system of a community of knowers, how can we

decide what we personally believe?

• Are there types of knowledge that are specifically linked to particular

communities of knowers?

• How can we know that current knowledge is an improvement on past

knowledge?

Methods and tools

How do we acquire knowledge?

• What constitutes a “good reason” for us to accept a claim?

• Are intuition, evidence, reasoning, consensus and authority all equally convincing methods of justification?

• Does knowledge always require some kind of rational basis?

• How do our expectations and assumptions have an impact on how we perceive things?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of requiring that all knowledge is verified by a group?

Ethics

• Are there responsibilities that necessarily come with knowing something or

knowing how to do something?

• As knowers, do we have a moral duty to examine our own assumptions and

biases?

• Under what circumstances, if any, do we have a moral duty to share what we

know?

• In what ways do ethical judgments differ from other kinds of judgments?

• Is there knowledge that a person or society has a responsibility to acquire or not

to acquire?

• If moral claims conflict, does it follow that all views are equally acceptable?

• What personal traits (such as taking seriously the knowledge of others) do we

need in order to be ethical knowers?

Optional Themes

The optional themes allow for a more in-depth look at two themes that are of particular interest to the TOK

teacher and students.

Teachers must select two optional themes from the following five options.

• Knowledge and technology

• Knowledge and language

• Knowledge and politics

• Knowledge and religion

• Knowledge and indigenous societies

These five themes have been selected because of their contemporary real-world relevance and their rich

potential to stimulate interesting and engaging TOK discussions around key areas, such as the justification

of, and evidence for, claims.

Knowledge and technology

For many, advances in technology have provided easy access to massive amounts of data and information,

and have facilitated unprecedented levels of global interaction. However, they have also raised important

questions about how we engage with, and understand, information; about our understanding of the world;

and about our understanding of ourselves.

This theme provides an opportunity for students to engage with highly topical and engaging issues, such as

those relating to the impact of artificial intelligence on knowledge and knowing. For example, there could

be discussion of whether humans are needed to create new knowledge; whether machines can know, think

or learn; or whether a knower is always human.

Scope

• How has technology had an impact on collective memory and how knowledge is preserved?

• What is the difference between “data”, “information” and “knowledge”?

• To what extent is the internet changing what it means to know something?

• In what sense, if any, can a machine be said to know something?

• Does technology allow knowledge to reside outside of human knowers?

• Does technology just allow us to arrange existing knowledge in different ways, or is this arrangement itself knowledge in some sense?

• Have technological developments had the greatest impact on what we know, how we know, or how we store knowledge?

Perspectives

• How are online or virtual communities similar to/different from “traditional” communities of knowers?

• Do social networks reinforce our existing perspective rather than boosting our engagement with diverse perspectives?

• What impact has the fact that English is the primary language of the internet had on knowledge sharing?

• How has technology had an impact on how we browse, search and filter data and information? Can algorithms be biased?

• Is big data creating a new cognitive paradigm?

Methods and tools

• How does technology extend or transform different modes of human cognition and communication?

• To what extent are technologies, such as the microscope and telescope, merely extensions to the human senses, or do they introduce radically new ways of seeing the world?

• Is artificial intelligence restricted to processing information or can it also allow machines to acquire knowledge?

• How does computation help people to process data and information to gain knowledge?

• What is the difference between computational thinking, algorithmic thinking and critical thinking?

• How do the tools that we use shape the knowledge that we produce?

Ethics

• How might technology exacerbate or mitigate unequal access, and divides in our access, to knowledge?

• Does the existence of the deep web influence our view on whether some knowledge should remain secret or largely inaccessible?

• Should we hold people responsible for the applications of technologies they develop/create?

• Are there situations where ignorance/lack of knowledge is an excuse for unethical behaviour?

• On what criteria could we decide whether activities such as “hacktivism” are morally justifiable? 

To what extent have technological developments led to an increase in data being collected without people’s consent or when they are unaware that it is being collected?

Making connections to the core theme

• How has increased access to images and other multimedia sources had an impact on what we know

and how we know? (scope)

• How might personal prejudices, biases and inequality become “coded into” software systems?

(perspectives)

• How does technology extend and modify the capabilities of our senses? (methods and tools)

• Do you use different criteria to make ethical decisions in online environments compared to in the

physical world? (ethics)

Knowledge and language

Language is an essential part of our daily lives, with most of our knowledge coming to us linguistically

encoded. It plays an important role in communicating and sharing knowledge and has a significant impact

on the way that we experience the world. However, some see language as having an even more central

role, arguing that language doesn’t just describe our experiences of the world but, in fact, actually

structures those experiences, limiting and shaping what we know.

This theme encourages students to reflect on the role of language in allowing knowledge to be shared with

others. Language plays a key role in the communication and dissemination of knowledge; it also enables

knowledge to be accumulated for, and passed down to, future generations. Language is also key to how

claims are exposed to public scrutiny; it enables what we think to be communicated

Scope

• Can all knowledge be expressed in words or symbols?

• Is it possible to think or know without language?

• Is being able to speak a language an example of “knowing how” to do

something?

• What role does language play in allowing knowledge to be shared with future

generations?

• Are there differences in how knowledge itself is conceived of, or presented, in different languages?

• Is it the case that if we cannot express something, we don’t know it?

• To what extent does language allow us to make our private experiences public?

• How does language allow humans to pool resources and share knowledge?

Perspectives

• Does the transmission of knowledge from one person or generation to another depend on language?

• What knowledge might be lost if the whole world shared one common language?

• If a language dies, does knowledge die with it?

• How do our values and assumptions influence the language in which we express our ideas?

• Is ambiguity a shortcoming of language that must be eliminated, or can it also be seen as making a positive contribution to knowledge and knowing?

• Do all people share some innate linguistic knowledge? If the categories that we use necessarily empower or marginalise, is it ever possible to produce knowledge that does not either reflect or challenge existing power structures?

Methods and tools

• How are metaphors used in the construction of knowledge?

• If language works according to sets of rules and conventions, how much scope do we have as individuals to break the rules or challenge these conventions?

• In what ways do values affect our representations of the world, for example, in language, maps or visual images?

• To what extent do the classification systems we use in the pursuit of knowledge affect the conclusions that we reach?

• In what ways can language be used to influence, persuade or manipulate people’s emotions?

• To what extent do the names and labels that we use help or hinder the acquisition of knowledge?

Ethics

Does ethical language differ in any significant way from other types of language?

• How can we know if language is intended to deceive or manipulate us?

• Do ethical statements simply convey our feelings/emotions rather than making claims?

• If ethical terms and concepts cannot be easily defined, does this mean that they are meaningless?

• Can we define words such as good and bad in terms of objective features of the world?

• Do professional interpreters and translators have any special ethical obligations?

Making connections to the core theme

• If you speak more than one language, is what you know different in each language? (scope)

• Do people from different linguistic or cultural backgrounds live, in some sense, in different worlds?

(perspectives)

• What are the implications if we do not produce knowledge in language that respects people’s

preferred modes of self-identification? (methods and tools)

• Who decides whether language should be censored in films and TV shows, and using what criteria?

(ethics)

Knowledge and politics

Knowledge itself has an intrinsically political dimension, as questions about how knowledge is constructed,

used and disseminated are infused with issues relating to power and politics. Political issues and decisions

also affect our daily lives in many different ways.

This theme provides an opportunity for discussions about the practice of politics and our everyday

interactions with politics in the world around us. For example, this theme is intended to provide an

opportunity to engage with high-profile contemporary debates and examples, such as those around “fake

news” and “post-truth politics”. It considers where our political views and values come from, and how these

inform and influence other areas of our lives. It encourages students to consider the role and origin of their

own political beliefs and positions, as well as exploring issues relating to how groups make decisions that

affect large numbers of people.

Scope

• In what ways is factual evidence sometimes used, abused, dismissed and ignored in politics?

• Is being knowledgeable an important quality in a political leader?

• How is the practice of politics distinct from the discipline of political science?

• What issues does politics raise about the difference between knowledge and opinion? How might political controversies be triggered by developments in scientific knowledge?

• Why have political leaders sometimes tried to control or eradicate specific bodies of knowledge?

• With regards to politics, do we know as much as we think we know?

Perspectives

• What kinds of knowledge inform our political opinions?

• To what extent are our political views shaped by society, family backgrounds, education or social class?

• Why do facts sometimes not change our minds?

• To what extent do museums package past knowledge to serve the needs of contemporary political systems and authorities?

• Given access to the same facts, how is it possible that there can be disagreement between experts on a political issue?

• When exposed to numerous competing ideologies and explanations, what makes an individual settle on a particular framework? Is there ever a neutral position from which to write about politics or from which to judge political opinions?

• How might knowledge reflect or perpetuate existing power structures?

Methods and tools

• What impact has social media had on how we acquire and share political knowledge?

• What role do reason and emotion play in the formation of our political affinities or in our voting decisions?

• How might emotive language and faulty reasoning be used in politics to try to persuade and manipulate?

• To what extent can polls provide reliable knowledge and accurate predictions?

• What role do political authorities and institutions play in knowledge-creation and distribution?

• Why are referendums sometimes regarded as a contentious decision-making tool?

• In what ways may statistical evidence be used and misused to justify political actions?

Ethics

• Are political judgments a type of moral judgment?

• Can knowledge be divorced from the values embedded in the process of creating it?

• Do political leaders and officials have different ethical obligations and responsibilities compared to members of the general public?

• When the moral codes of individual nations conflict, can political organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), provide universal criteria that transcend them?

• On what criteria could we judge whether an action should be regarded as justifiable civil disobedience?

• On what grounds might an individual believe that they know what is right for others?

• Are new ethical challenges emerging from the increased use of data analytics in political activity and decision-making?

Making connections to the core theme

• How can we know whether we have sufficient knowledge before voting in an election? (scope)

• Has technology changed how and where our political views are shaped? (perspectives)

• Are objective facts or appeals to emotion more effective in shaping public opinion? (methods and tools)

• In a democratic system, do we have an ethical obligation to be knowledgeable about political issues

and events? (ethics)

Knowledge and religion

For many people, religion has a major impact on how they understand the world. It permeates their

thinking and influences their understanding of other areas, providing a backdrop to all of the other

knowledge they possess. Religions themselves also generate specific claims about knowledge, as well as

competing assertions and interpretations.

This theme provides an opportunity for students to think carefully, critically and respectfully about

knowledge and religion, and to reflect on the significant impact that religion has on how we view the

world. Religion is often regarded as a sensitive area in which discussions should be had with caution, in part

because people have very personal and deeply held convictions regarding religious matters. Yet many of

the features that make religion such a contentious topic are exactly the features that make it highly

engaging for students and hugely relevant for a course such as TOK.

Scope

• If knowledge is a map, what is the territory that religion represents?

• What is the value of thinking about questions to which there are no definite answers?

• Does religion try to resolve problems that other areas can’t resolve?

• Is the point of knowledge to produce meaning and purpose in our lives?

• Is certainty any more or less attainable in religion than it is in the arts or human sciences?

• To what extent do scientific developments have the power to influence thinking about religion? Is faith a prerequisite for religious knowledge?

Perspectives

• Can there be religious knowledge that is independent of the culture that produces it?

• How has our understanding and perception of religious knowledge changed over time?

• Are those outside a specific religious tradition really able to understand its key ideas?

• What impact has forced religious conversion had on traditional knowledge and cultural diversity? To what extent is it legitimate for a non-believer to criticise the content of a religious belief?

• To what extent do you agree that there is just as much diversity of perspectives within individual religions than there is across different religions?.

Methods and tools

• Are religious beliefs rational?

• Can theistic beliefs be considered knowledge because they are produced by a special cognitive faculty or “divine sense”?

• What is the role of analogy and metaphor in the acquisition of religious knowledge?

• Do ritual and habit play a special role in the formation of religious knowledge?

• What difficulties are presented by using human language to discuss religious claims?

• What role do authority and testimony play in the pursuit of knowledge?

• How have language developments (such as the shift from Latin to the vernacular) had an impact on access to religious knowledge?

• Are faith and reason interdependent?

Ethics

• Do we have an ethical responsibility to gain knowledge of different religions to help us better understand the world and those around us?

• Does religion provide a way to systematize concepts of right and wrong?

• Do religious knowledge claims carry any particular obligation or responsibility for the knower?

• What role do religious leaders and authority figures play in influencing ethical debates?

• If religion is intimately connected with ethics, should we expect those with religious knowledge to act more ethically than those without it?

Making connections to the core theme

• What kinds of knowledge can be gained through introspection? (scope)

• How does our own theism, atheism or agnosticism have an impact on our perspective? (perspectives)

• Do you agree with Carl Sagan’s claim that “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence”?

(methods and tools)

• To what extent does religion influence social norms and values? (ethics)

Knowledge and indigenous societies

In recent years there has been increasing global awareness of the historic and ongoing injustices that many

groups of indigenous peoples have faced, and of how threats to indigenous societies can lead to a loss of

traditional knowledge and cultural diversity. For example, in 2007 the UN adopted the “United Nations

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”, which includes the statement that “Indigenous peoples

have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and

traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures”.

This optional theme provides an opportunity to undertake a more detailed exploration of knowledge that is

principally bound to a particular group, culture or society. It focuses on knowledge that is deeply

embedded in the culture and traditions of particular communities of knowers, and how what might be seen

as “traditional” indigenous knowledge and societies operate today.

Scope

• Does our culture determine what we know?

• In what ways does the loss of indigenous languages signify a loss of knowledge and cultural diversity?

• Does the emphasis on holistic knowledge found in some indigenous societies avoid a limited understanding of reality resulting from the compartmentalization of knowledge?

• Who owns knowledge?

• How have government education policies and systems compromised the transmission of indigenous knowledge?

• Why is there sometimes a strong connection between indigenous knowledge and cosmology?

Perspectives

• To what extent is our perspective determined by our membership of a particular culture?

• To what extent does the fact that most early literature on indigenous societies was written from a non-indigenous perspective affect its credibility?

• What values and assumptions underpin the use of the term “indigenous” knowledge?

• Does a neutral position exist from which to make judgments about competing claims from different groups with different traditions?

• As an “outsider”, can we know and speak about the knowledge held by a different cultural group?

• How might differences in their worldviews create challenges for collaboration between environmental scientists and holders of traditional environmental knowledge?

• Does the term “indigenous” knowledge” necessarily suggest power divisions between a dominant and non-dominant group?

Methods and tools

• How reliable are oral traditions in preserving knowledge in indigenous societies?

• What is the role of oral tradition in enabling knowledge to be handed down through generations?

• What role do objects and artifacts play in the construction and sharing of knowledge?

• Does what is seen to constitute “good evidence” vary from culture to culture?

• What is the role of folklore, rituals and songs in acquiring and sharing knowledge?

• What methods have indigenous peoples developed to support the recording, preservation and protection of their traditional knowledge?

Ethics

• Does the diversity of moral practices that we see in indigenous societies around the world support the case for moral relativism?

• To what extent does deliberate disinformation by educational institutions and governments threaten indigenous knowledge?

• Is cultural appropriation an example of a violation of collective intellectual property rights?

• Is there a difference between moral values and cultural customs?

• Is there any knowledge that a person or a society has a responsibility to acquire, or not to acquire?

• Can the practices of one individual or culture be judged with any validity by applying the moral values of another generation or another culture?

Making connections to the core theme

• Is it possible to have knowledge of a culture in which we have not been raised? (scope)

• To what extent are we aware of the impact of our culture(s) on what we believe or know?

(perspectives)

• How can we know when we should trust and defer to the authority of experts? (methods and tools)

• What ethical concerns are raised by the commercialisation of indigenous knowledge and cultures?

(ethics)

Areas of Knowledge

Areas of knowledge are structures within which much human knowledge is organized. In these areas there

are often socially established methods for producing knowledge, as well as norms for what counts as a fact

or a good explanation.

Students are required to study all five of the following areas of knowledge.

• History

• The human sciences

• The natural sciences

• The arts

• Mathematics

Within their discussions, students should be encouraged to think about, and draw examples from, specific

individual academic disciplines that are included within the different areas of knowledge.

The following sections contain guidance and examples of knowledge questions for each of these five

compulsory areas of knowledge. These are suggestions only and should not be taken as prescriptive or

exhaustive. However, teachers must ensure that the focus remains clearly on knowledge in that area, and

that they engage with the four compulsory elements required in every part of the syllabus: scope,

perspectives, methods and tools and ethics.

History

Studying history involves exploration and inquiry into the past. This raises questions about whether it is

possible to talk meaningfully about a historical fact, or how far we can speak with certainty about anything

in the past.

History provides particularly interesting material for TOK discussions because of the challenges presented

by not being able to directly observe the past, and because the historian is unable to utilize some of the

methods of inquiry that are used in other areas of knowledge. Studying history can also promote empathy

with, and understanding of, people living in diverse places and at different times. These characteristics

open up many interesting issues and questions that are unique, or particularly pertinent, to history as an

area of knowledge.

Scope

• Is it possible to have knowledge of the past?

• Is knowledge about the past different from other kinds of knowledge?

• Are all areas of knowledge concerned with knowledge of the past to some extent?

• Why does history enjoy a privileged position as its own dedicated area of knowledge in the TOK curriculum?

• Is all knowledge in some sense historical knowledge?

• Is truth the goal of all historical inquiry?

• Is certainty about the past more difficult to attain than certainty about the present or the future?

• What counts as a fact in history?

Perspectives

• If it is difficult to establish proof in history, does that mean that all versions are equally acceptable?

• Are historians’ accounts necessarily subjective?

• Is empathy more important in history than in other areas of knowledge?

• How might the existence of different historical perspectives be beneficial to historical knowledge?

• Can the historian be free of bias in the selection and interpretation of material?

• Is it inevitable that historians will be affected by their own cultural context?

• How can we gauge the extent to which history is being told from a cultural or national perspective?

• Are we more prone to particular cognitive biases (such as hindsight bias) in some disciplines and areas of knowledge rather than others?

Methods and tools

• What methods do historians use to gain knowledge?

• What is unique about the methodology of history compared to other areas of knowledge?

• On what criteria can a historian evaluate the reliability of their sources?

• If our senses are sometimes unreliable, does this mean that eyewitness testimony is an unreliable source of evidence?

• Have technological developments enabled us to observe the past more directly?

• What challenges does archive-based history emphasize about how knowledge is shared and preserved?

• Is there less emphasis on collaborative research in history than there is between researchers in other areas of knowledge?

• How do the methods and conventions of historians themselves change over time?

Ethics

• Is it unfair to judge people and actions in the past by the standards of today?

• Should terms such as “atrocity” or “hero” be used when writing about history, or should value judgments be avoided?

• Do historians have a moral responsibility to try to ensure that history is not misused and distorted by people for their own ends?

• On what criteria could we decide whether people in the past have a right to privacy in the present?

• Do historians have an ethical obligation not to ignore contradictory evidence?

Making connections to the core theme

• Is it possible to know who we are without knowledge of the past? (scope)

• How does the way that we identify with past events, such as military victories or defeats, shape our perspective? (perspectives)

• How might the methods of the historian help us to evaluate claims we are exposed to in the media today? (methods and tools)

• What ethical concerns are raised by the digitization and online publication of archive material containing people’s personal images and documents? (ethics)

The human sciences

The human sciences include a diverse range of disciplines, such as psychology, social and cultural

anthropology, economics, political science, and geography. These disciplines share a common focus on the

study of human existence and behaviour.

The diversity of the disciplines included within the human sciences can itself be a stimulus for interesting

TOK discussions, as can the coexistence of different approaches within a single discipline (for example

psychodynamic versus behaviourist versus humanistic approaches in psychology).

One interesting focus for discussion could be, for example, whether there are fundamental differences

between the human sciences and the natural sciences in terms of how they interpret the word “science”,

the methods they use for collecting data, or how they test the validity and reliability of hypotheses.

Scope

• How do we decide whether a particular discipline should be regarded as a human science?

• Do the human sciences and literature provide different types of knowledge about human existence and behaviour?

• Are predictions in the human sciences inevitably unreliable?

• What are the main difficulties that human scientists encounter when trying to provide explanations of human behaviour?

• Is human behaviour too unpredictable to study scientifically?

• Do the boundaries between different disciplines and different areas of knowledge help or hinder understanding?

• Is it possible to discover laws of human behaviour in the same way that the natural sciences discover laws of nature?

Perspectives

• To what extent is it legitimate for a researcher to draw on their own experiences as evidence in their investigations in the human sciences?

• Is it possible to eliminate the effect of the observer in the pursuit of knowledge in the human sciences?

• How might the beliefs and interests of human scientists influence their conclusions? How can we know when we have made progress in the search for knowledge in the human sciences?

• If two competing paradigms give different explanations of a phenomenon, how can we decide which explanation to accept?

• What forms of protection against research error and bias are available to human scientists?

Methods and tools

• What role do models play in the acquisition of knowledge in the human sciences?

• Are observation and experimentation the only two ways in which human scientists produce knowledge?

• What assumptions underlie the methods used in the human sciences?

• To what extent are the methods used to gain knowledge in the human sciences “scientific”?

• How does the use of numbers, statistics, graphs and other quantitative instruments affect the way knowledge in the human sciences is valued?

• To what extent can the human sciences use mathematical techniques to make accurate predictions?

Ethics

• To what extent are the methods used in the human sciences limited by the ethical considerations involved in studying human beings?

• Do researchers have different ethical responsibilities when they are working with human subjects compared to when they are working with animals?

• What are the moral implications of possessing knowledge about human behaviour?

• Should key events in the historical development of the human sciences always be judged by the standards of their time?

• What values determine what counts as legitimate inquiry in the human sciences? Can knowledge be divorced from the values embedded in the process of creating it?

• Is the role of the human scientist only to describe what the case is or also to make judgements about what should be the case?

Making connections to the core theme

• How does advertising utilize knowledge of human psychology to influence and persuade us? (scope)

• What is it about a theory that gives it the power to destabilize our view of ourselves and of the world?

(perspectives)

• How might the language used in polls and questionnaires influence the conclusions that are reached?

(methods and tools)

• What moral obligations to act or not act do we have if our knowledge is tentative, incomplete or

uncertain (ethics)

The natural sciences

The natural sciences are often seen to rely on evidence, rationality and the quest for deeper understanding.

Observation and experimentation play a key role, and terms such as “theory” have a special meaning in the

natural sciences compared to how they are used in daily life and in other areas of knowledge.

A focus for discussions of the natural sciences could be what differentiates the scientific from the nonscientific

or “pseudo-scientific”. Many people would suggest that it is the methods used in the natural

sciences that is the key distinguishing factor—which raises the question of what it is about these methods

that means that the knowledge they generate is often regarded as being highly reliable. Students could

also consider whether the word “science” means different things in different languages, or whether it has

been used differently in different periods of history.

Another interesting focus for discussions could be scientific development, revolutions and paradigm shifts.

This could include what is meant by a paradigm shift, whether scientific knowledge has always grown, or

how technological developments have driven scientific progress and discoveries. It could also include

reflection on whether we could ever reach a point where everything important to the natural sciences is

known.

Scope

• Why might some people regard science as the supreme form of all knowledge?

• Should the natural sciences be regarded as a body of knowledge, a system of knowledge or a method?

• Could there be scientific problems that are currently unknown because the technology needed to reveal them doesn’t exist yet?

• Is human knowledge confined to what the natural sciences discover, or are there other important inquiries that are not covered by the natural sciences?

• What knowledge, if any, is likely to always remain beyond the capabilities of science to investigate or verify?

• Do the natural sciences rely on any assumptions that are themselves unprovable by science?

• Is prediction the primary purpose of scientific knowledge?

• How might developments in scientific knowledge trigger political controversies or controversies in other areas of knowledge?

Perspectives

• How can it be that scientific knowledge changes over time?

• What role do paradigm shifts play in the progression of scientific knowledge?

• How does the social context of scientific work affect the methods and findings of science?

• In what ways have influential individuals contributed to the development of the natural sciences as an area of knowledge?

• Does the precision of the language used in the natural sciences successfully eliminate all ambiguity?

• Does the list of disciplines included in, or excluded from, the natural sciences change from one era to another, or from one culture or tradition to another?

• Does competition between scientists help or hinder the production of knowledge?

Methods and tools

• Is there a single “scientific method”?

• What is the role of imagination and intuition in the creation of hypotheses in the natural sciences?

• What kinds of explanations do natural scientists offer?

• Why are many of the laws in the natural sciences stated using the language of mathematics?

• What is the role of inductive and deductive reasoning in scientific inquiry, prediction and explanation?

• Does scientific language have a primarily descriptive, explanatory or interpretative function?

Ethics

• Is science, or should it be, value-free?

• Should scientific research be subject to ethical constraints or is the pursuit of all scientific knowledge intrinsically worthwhile?

• Do we tend to exaggerate the objectivity of scientific facts and the subjectivity of moral values?

• In what ways have developments in science challenged long-held ethical values? Can moral disagreements be resolved with reference to empirical evidence?

• Do human rights exist in the same way that the laws of gravity exist?

• Do scientists or the societies in which scientists operate exert a greater influence on what is ethically acceptable in this area of knowledge?

Making connections to the core theme

• How might we, as members of the public, judge whether to accept scientific findings if we do not have

detailed scientific knowledge? (scope)

• How is it that scientific knowledge is often shared by large, geographically spread and culturally

diverse groups? (perspectives)

• Is the depiction of the “scientific method” traditionally found in many school science textbooks an

accurate model of scientific activity? (methods and tools)

• Do the natural sciences provide us with good examples of people who approach knowledge in a

rigorous and responsible way? (ethics)

The arts

“The arts” is used in TOK to include a diverse range of disciplines such as visual arts, theatre, dance, music,

film and literature. The forms and methods of these disciplines are often dissimilar, so the diversity within

this single area of knowledge can itself be an excellent stimulus for TOK discussions.

The arts provide rich material for discussions of concepts such as interpretation. For example, students

could consider how we ascribe meaning to works of art, or whether the intention of the artist is what

determines meaning. During these discussions, students could be encouraged to draw on their experiences

from their DP studies in language and literature classes, where they are required to understand and

interpret a range of texts.

Scope

• Do the disciplines in the arts diverge from one another more fundamentally than disciplines within other areas of knowledge?

• Does new knowledge in the arts always build on what is already known?

• How have new technologies changed the nature and scope of the arts as an area of knowledge?

• Are the arts best seen as a system of knowledge, a type of knowledge or a means of expressing knowledge?

• Is artistic knowledge something that cannot be expressed in any other way?

• Is the relationship between “knowing how” and “knowing that” different in the arts compared to other areas of knowledge? Does art enlarge what it is possible for us to think and know?

Perspectives

• Is there such a thing as “obsolete” knowledge in the arts?

• Can a work of art have meaning of which the artist themselves is unaware?

• How does knowing more about the social, cultural or historical context of a work of art have an impact on our knowledge of the work itself?

• Can art change the way we interpret the world?

• What are the justifications for, and implications of, claiming that there are absolute standards for “good art”?

• Who determines what art is valued, and on what criteria?

• Should your judgments about art be given the same weight as those of an expert?

• What role does the history of an artform play in evaluating present work?

Methods and tools

• Does convention play a different role in the arts compared to other areas of knowledge?

• Does sense perception perform a radically different role in the arts compared to other areas of knowledge?

• If the language of an art form is non-verbal, does this free it from being limited to propositional knowledge?

• Can some knowledge in the arts only be gained through experience? How does the medium used change the way that knowledge is produced, shared or understood?

• To what extent are the methods of justification different in the arts compared to other areas of knowledge?

Ethics

• In what ways are moral judgments similar to, or different from, aesthetic judgments?

• Do the arts play a role in the development of our personal value systems?

• How important is the study of literature in our individual ethical development?

• Is the production and enjoyment of art subject to ethical constraints?

• On what criteria could it be decided if the state has the right to censor art that is deemed immoral or blasphemous?

• Do the arts have the power to challenge established moral values?

• Are moral and aesthetic judgments more a matter of taste than a matter of truth?

• Can we separate the moral character of the artist from the value of the artwork?

Making connections to the core theme

• Does art provide knowledge of the artist or of ourselves? (scope)

• How is art used in advertising to affect the beliefs of individuals and groups? (perspectives)

• Does artistic creation rely more heavily on imagination than on other cognitive tools? (methods and

tools)

• What moral responsibilities do we have regarding art that has been created or published by other

people? (ethics)

Mathematics

Mathematics is sometimes seen to have a degree of certainty that is unmatched by other areas of

knowledge or is seen to be founded on a set of more or less universally accepted definitions and basic

assumptions. This makes mathematics an excellent source of material for TOK discussions.

One interesting focus for discussions could be the status of mathematics as an area of knowledge. Students

could consider why disciplines in the human sciences are often keen to cast their conclusions in

mathematical terms, or why mathematical treatments of a topic are often taken by many to be a sign of

intellectual rigour. They could also consider why mathematics is often given a privileged position in many

education systems.

Another rich source of material for TOK discussions can be the role of creativity, imagination, beauty and

elegance in mathematics. Despite, or perhaps because of, the strict confines of mathematical logic,

mathematics can be an enormously creative subject, asking its practitioners to make great leaps of

imagination. This could lead to discussion of whether, or why, elegance and beauty should be relevant to

mathematical value.

Scope

• Why is mathematics so important in other areas of knowledge, particularly the natural sciences?

• How have technological innovations, such as developments in computing, affected the scope and nature of mathematics as an area of knowledge?

• Is absolute certainty attainable in mathematics?

• Is there a distinction between truth and certainty in mathematics?

• Should mathematics be defined as a language?

• Is mathematics better defined by its subject matter or its method?

• Does mathematics only yield knowledge about the real world when it is combined with other areas of knowledge?

• Is there a hierarchy of areas of knowledge in terms of their usefulness in solving problems?

Perspectives

• What is it about mathematics that enables mathematical results to remain unchanged over time?

• How significant have notable individuals been in shaping the nature and development of mathematics as an area of knowledge?

• What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a mathematical proof?

• Is mathematical knowledge embedded in particular cultures or traditions?

• Does personal experience play any role in the formation of claims in mathematics?

• Is progress harder to make in mathematics than in other areas of knowledge?

• If mathematics is created by humans, is it still possible to accept mathematical truths as objective facts about the world?

Methods and tools

• Is mathematical reasoning different from scientific reasoning or reasoning in other areas of knowledge?

• What is meant by the term “proof” in mathematics, and how is this similar to, or different from what is meant by this term in other areas of knowledge?

• How do mathematicians reconcile the fact that some conclusions seem to conflict with our intuitions?

• What does it mean to say that mathematics is an axiomatic system?

• How is an axiomatic system of knowledge different from, or similar to, other systems of knowledge?

• Do mathematical symbols have meaning in the same way that words have meaning? Is personal experience more important or less important in mathematics compared to other areas of knowledge?

Ethics

• If mathematical knowledge is highly valued, does this place special ethical responsibilities on mathematicians when they are making claims?

• On what criteria could we decide whether mathematicians should be held responsible for unethical applications of their work?

• How are unethical practices, such as “data dredging”, used by statisticians to deliberately manipulate and mislead people?

• Is it ethically justifiable for academic mathematicians to spend time doing research that does not have immediate useful applications?

• Do mathematical judgments and ethical judgments face similar challenges in terms of the evidence available to support them?

• Are mathematicians the people best placed to create codes of ethics for professional mathematicians?

Making connections to the core theme

• Why do you think mathematics enjoys a privileged status in many education systems? (scope)

• Who judges the validity of a proof? (perspectives)

• What steps can we take to help ourselves avoid being misled by statistics used in unclear or disingenuous ways in the media? (methods and tools)

• To what extent do you agree with the claim that mathematics “serves as a training that shapes thinking in an ethics-free and amoral way” (Paul Ernest)? (ethics)

The TOK exhibition explores how TOK manifests in the world around us. For this reason it is strongly

recommended that students base their exhibition on one of the TOK themes (either the core theme or one

of the optional themes).

The TOK exhibition is an internal assessment component—it is marked by the teacher and is externally

moderated by the IB. Internal assessment is an integral part of all DP courses. It enables students to

demonstrate the application of their skills and knowledge, and to pursue their personal interests.

For this task, students are required to create an exhibition of three objects that connect to one of the 35 “IA

prompts” provided in the “IA prompts” section of this guide. Students must select just one IA prompt on

which to base their exhibition, and all three objects must be linked to the same IA prompt.

Students are required to create an exhibition comprising three objects, or images of objects, and an

accompanying written commentary on each object. To enable their exhibition to be marked by their TOK

teacher and for samples of student work to be submitted to the IB for moderation, students are required to

produce a single file containing:

• a title clearly indicating their selected IA prompt

• images of their three objects

• a typed commentary on each object that identifies each object and its specific real-world context,

justifies its inclusion in the exhibition and links to the IA prompt (maximum 950 words)

• appropriate citations and references.

Each student must create an individual exhibition. Group work may not be undertaken by students.

Multiple students in the same TOK class are permitted to create exhibitions on the same IA prompt.

However, students in the same class are not permitted to use any of the same objects.

The TOK exhibition task has been explicitly designed to be completed during the first year of the DP. To

support DP students, it is important that schools have a clear overall schedule of internal deadlines for the

completion of the internal assessment tasks for the different subjects. Within this schedule, teachers are

strongly encouraged to complete the TOK exhibition in the first year of the programme.

Further guidance on the TOK exhibition task, including marked and annotated examples

The TOK exhibition process

It is recommended that a total of approximately eight hours of teaching time should be allocated to the

TOK exhibition task.

The TOK exhibition process consists of three key steps.

Summary of the TOK exhibition process

Step 1

Students begin their exhibition by selecting one IA prompt and three objects, or

images of objects, that show how this question manifests in the world around us.

Students must select one IA prompt as the basis for their exhibition. All three objects

must be linked to the same prompt.

To help them approach this task effectively, students are encouraged to root their

exhibition in one of the TOK themes—either the core theme or one of the optional

themes. This can help to provide an accessible starting point for students and can

provide a focus to help students narrow down their choice of potential objects.

Within the teaching time allocated to undertaking this task, teachers should ensure

that they include time to explain the requirements of the task and ensure that

students are familiar with the assessment instrument.

Step 2 

Students should produce a single file containing their TOK exhibition. 

This must include:

• a title clearly indicating their selected IA prompt

• images of their three objects

• a typed commentary on each object that identifies each object and its specific

real-world context, justifies each object’s inclusion in the exhibition and links to

the IA prompt (maximum 950 words)

• appropriate citations and references.

Teachers are permitted to provide feedback on one draft of this work. They should

provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved, but should not

edit the draft.

Once complete, this file is submitted to the TOK teacher to be marked. Samples of

student work are then submitted to the IB for moderation.

Step 3

 Teachers are required to provide all students with an opportunity for their

completed exhibitions to be showcased and exhibited to an audience. As this does

not form part of the formal assessment task, teachers have a great deal of flexibility

as to how they choose to hold these exhibitions—as in the following examples.

• A class of TOK students could hold an exhibition within one of their regular TOK

classes.

• Two classes of TOK students in the same school, or different schools, could host

exhibitions for each other.

• A class of TOK students could host an exhibition for younger students in the

school.

• A school could host a TOK exhibition for parents and other members of the

school community.

• Students could display their TOK exhibitions in a “virtual exhibition” (by using

an online virtual gallery space)

• A school could host a combined event celebrating the PYP exhibition, MYP

personal project and the TOK exhibition.

IA prompts

The IA prompts are a set of 35 high-level knowledge questions. Students must select one of the following

IA prompts on which to base their exhibition, and all three objects must be linked to the same prompt.

These IA prompts apply for all examination sessions for the life of this guide—they do not change from

session to session.

Students are required to create an exhibition of three objects that connect to one of the following IA

prompts.

1. What counts as knowledge?

2. Are some types of knowledge more useful than others?

3. What features of knowledge have an impact on its reliability?

4. On what grounds might we doubt a claim?

5. What counts as good evidence for a claim?

6. How does the way that we organize or classify knowledge affect what we know?

7. What are the implications of having, or not having, knowledge?

8. To what extent is certainty attainable?

9. Are some types of knowledge less open to interpretation than others?

10. What challenges are raised by the dissemination and/or communication of knowledge?

11. Can new knowledge change established values or beliefs?

12. Is bias inevitable in the production of knowledge?

13. How can we know that current knowledge is an improvement upon past knowledge?

14. Does some knowledge belong only to particular communities of knowers?

15. What constraints are there on the pursuit of knowledge?

16. Should some knowledge not be sought on ethical grounds?

17. Why do we seek knowledge?

18. Are some things unknowable?

19. What counts as a good justification for a claim?

20. What is the relationship between personal experience and knowledge?

21. What is the relationship between knowledge and culture?

22. What role do experts play in influencing our consumption or acquisition of knowledge?

23. How important are material tools in the production or acquisition of knowledge?

24. How might the context in which knowledge is presented influence whether it is accepted or rejected?

25. How can we distinguish between knowledge, belief and opinion?

26. Does our knowledge depend on our interactions with other knowers?

27. Does all knowledge impose ethical obligations on those who know it?

28. To what extent is objectivity possible in the production or acquisition of knowledge?

29. Who owns knowledge?

30. What role does imagination play in producing knowledge about the world?

31. How can we judge when evidence is adequate?

32. What makes a good explanation?

33. How is current knowledge shaped by its historical development?

34. In what ways do our values affect our acquisition of knowledge?

35. In what ways do values affect the production of knowledge?

The chosen IA prompt must be used exactly as given; it must not be altered in any way.

• If the IA prompt has been modified but it is still clear which IA prompt the student is referring to, the

TOK exhibition should be marked as using the original IA prompt. Any lack of relevance in the

student’s response arising from this modification will be reflected in the score awarded.

• If it is clear that the TOK Exhibition is not based on one of the IA prompts listed, the TOK exhibition

should be awarded a score of zero, in accordance with the TOK Exhibition assessment instrument.

Objects

An extremely wide variety of different types of objects are suitable for use in a TOK exhibition. Students are

encouraged to choose objects that are of personal interest and that they have come across in their

academic studies and/or their lives beyond the classroom.

It is strongly recommended that students base their exhibition on one of the themes (the core theme or

one of the optional themes). This can be an extremely useful way to help students narrow down their

choice of objects and give a focus to their exhibition.

Digital or physical objects

The objects may be digital rather than physical objects. For example, students could include a photograph

of an object, such as a historical treaty, where it would not be practical/possible for them to exhibit the

physical object. Students may also use digital objects such as a tweet by a political leader. However, they

must be specific objects that have a specific real-world context—objects that exist in a particular time and

place (including virtual spaces). They may be objects that the student has created themselves, but they

must be pre-existing objects rather than objects created specifically for the purposes of the exhibition.

Context of an object

The specific real-world context of each object is extremely important to the task. It is, therefore, important

that students identify specific objects to discuss rather than using generic objects and generic images from

the internet. For example, a discussion and photograph of a student’s baby brother is an example of an

object that has a specific real-world context, whereas a generic image of “a baby” from an internet image

search is not.

Examples of the diverse kinds of objects students could select include the following.

• A tweet from the President of the United States

• An image of the painting Guernica by Pablo Picasso

• The student’s own extended essay (EE)

• A basketball used by the student during their physical education lessons

• The graphic novel The Colour of Earth by Kim Dong Hwa

• A painting that the student created in their DP visual arts course

• A refillable water bottle provided to each student in a school as part of a sustainability initiative

• A news article from the popular website Buzzfeed

• A photograph of the student playing in an orchestra

Images of objects

The image of each object used in the exhibition must be appropriately referenced. If an object is the

student’s own original work (for example, a painting that they created in a visual arts class) then this should

be identified and acknowledged to ensure that teachers and moderators are clear about the origins of the

object.

Word count

The maximum overall word count for the TOK exhibition is 950 words. This word count includes the written

commentaries on each of the three objects. It does not include:

• any text contained on/within the objects themselves

• acknowledgments, references (whether given in footnotes, endnotes or in-text) or bibliography.

If an exhibition exceeds the word limit, then examiners are instructed to stop reading after 950 words and

to base their assessment on only the first 950 words. Extended footnotes or appendices are not appropriate

to a TOK exhibition.

All work submitted to the IB for moderation or assessment must be authenticated by a teacher and must

not include any known instances of suspected or confirmed misconduct. Each student must confirm that

the work is his or her authentic work and constitutes the final version of that work. Once a student has

officially submitted the final version of the work it cannot be retracted. The requirement to confirm the

authenticity of work applies to the work of all students, not just the sample work that will be submitted to

the IB for the purpose of moderation.

Authenticity may be checked by discussion with the student on the content of the work, and scrutiny of

one or more of the following.

• The student’s initial proposal

• The first draft of the written work

• The references provided

• The style of writing compared with work known to be that of the student

• The analysis of the work by a web-based plagiarism detection service

TOK essay 

The TOK essay engages students in a formal, sustained piece of writing in response to one of the six titles

that are prescribed by the IB for each examination session. These titles take the form of knowledge

questions that are focused on the areas of knowledge.

The TOK essay is an external assessment component. Each student’s essay is submitted to the IB to be

marked by IB examiners. The TOK Essay must be written in standard 12 type size and be double spaced. It is

not primarily a research paper, but it is expected that specific sources will be used, and these must be

acknowledged.

Essay titles

The IB releases a set of six prescribed titles for each examination session.

It is not intended that students will spend six months working on their essays—teachers should select a

window within that six-month period for students to work on their essays that fits with the other

commitments in their school calendars. It is suggested that 10 hours of teaching time should be dedicated

to working on the TOK Essay.

The chosen title must be used exactly as given; it must not be altered in any way.

• If the title has been modified but it is still clear which prescribed title for the current session it refers to,

the essay will be marked against that prescribed title. Any lack of relevance in the student’s response

to the prescribed title arising from this modification will be reflected in the score awarded.

• If it is clear that the title bears no resemblance to any title for the current session, the essay will be

awarded a score of zero, in accordance with the TOK essay assessment instrument.

Word count

The maximum length of the essay is 1,600 words. Extended footnotes or appendices are not appropriate

for the TOK essay.

The word count includes:

• the main part of the essay

• any quotations.

The word count does not include:

• any acknowledgments

• the references (whether given in footnotes, endnotes or in-text) and bibliography

• any maps, charts, diagrams, annotated illustrations or tables.

If an essay exceeds the word limit, then examiners are instructed to stop reading after 1,600 words and to

base their assessment on just the first 1,600 words. Students are required to indicate the number of words

when the essay is uploaded during the submission process.

Guidance and authenticity

The TOK essay must be the student’s own work. However, the teacher plays an important role in supporting

the student during the planning and writing of their essay. Teachers are expected to explain the

requirements of the task and ensure that students are familiar with the assessment instrument, provide

clarifications in response to students’ questions, monitor students’ progress, and check the authenticity of

the student work.

For the TOK essay, three formal recorded interactions between the student and teacher are required. These

three interactions must be recorded on the TOK essay Planning and Progress Form (TK/PPF).

1. Discuss the list of prescribed titles with the student.

The student should discuss the prescribed titles with the teacher.

The final choice of title remains with the student, who should develop their own thinking and ideas.

2. Discuss the student’s initial exploration of their selected title (for example, an essay plan).

After choosing the title and developing their initial ideas in relation to it, the student must discuss their initial work/ explorations with the teacher by sharing them in written form. For example, this could take the form of a set of notes and ideas that could then be turned into a more formal essay plan following the discussion with the teacher.

3. Comment on one draft of the student’s essay.

After this, the student is permitted to present one full draft of the essay to the teacher. The teacher should provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved. This advice may take the form of written comments of a global nature, but teachers are not permitted to mark or edit this draft. While the student may seek further advice from the teacher, for example, on the appropriateness of a particular example or on the clarity of a section of writing, no further written advice on drafts is permitted. The next version handed to the teacher must be the final version for submission.

All work submitted to the IB for moderation or assessment must be authenticated by a teacher and must

not include any known instances of suspected or confirmed misconduct. Each student must confirm that

the work is his or her authentic work and constitutes the final version of that work. Once a student has

officially submitted the final version of the work it cannot be retracted.

Examples of ways that authenticity may be checked are through discussions with the student about the

content of their work, scrutiny of the style of writing compared with work known to be that of the student,

scrutiny of the references cited, or the analysis of the work by a web-based plagiarism detection service.