Understanding Format

Format refers to the layout and typography of a document. It includes the margins, line spacing, paragraphing, pagination, and the style and size of type.

There is no single right format. Whatever organization you work for or whatever publication you submit a piece to, you must arrange that piece according to that organization's or publication's prescribed format. Format can be simple, such as single spacing and indented paragraphs, or more complicated. One reason for more complicated formatting is to make the reading process more efficient. For example, in a scientific paper, having all the information follow a specific order makes it easier to locate specific information, such as the methods.

Appropriateness of Format

Format varies. If you were to pick up a dozen journals and look at the way headings or references are handled, you might very well find twelve different formats. The format of journals often varies in order to help distinguish one journal from another, particularly if they are in the same field. Organizations similarly often want their own distinct look.

To illustrate, the table below presents some common differences found in just two format issues: the hierarchy of headings and in-text references. One reason a format specifies a hierarchy for headings is so readers can understand what information in the document is primary and what information is subordinate. The actual ways to represent these hierarchies vary considerably, such as different type sizes for the headings, different amounts of white space surrounding the headings, different typestyles for the headings, and numbering schemes for different order headings.

In still other cases, such as the default option of your word processor (header 1, header 2, header 3), the formats call for combinations of these variables. Likewise, the formats for assigning credit to sources vary a great deal. Some formats call for an author-year listing in the text, others call for a numbered listing, and still others call for an abbreviated listing. Each of these listing systems refers to a references section where readers can find a full citation for the source. The way full citations are written also varies considerably.

Readability of Format

Good formatting makes your content more readable.

1. Use a legible, plain typeface that is easy to distinguish, such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Verdana. Make sure the typeface allows ample height and space for lowercase letters and is characterized by shapes that are obvious to decipher. Choose a serif font that has letters with attached strokes, such as Georgia, if you want traditional printed text. Serif fonts differentiate between the capital I and the lowercase l, for example. Otherwise, choose a sans-serif font that has no flourishes, such as Verdana.

2. Use a color that contrasts with the background. Black print on white background is the most common and gives a page high readability. Readability decreases as font color and background become less contrasted. If a document is well written but unreadable, it might as well not exist.

3. Select a size that allows ten to fifteen words per line. A small size is difficult to read and characters that are too large can break the flow of sentences, causing readers to have to drop to the next line too frequently to create good readability.

4. Use white space. White space on a page lets you emphasize the most important things; it gives readers visual cues. Readers will be put off by crowded, cluttered pages. Put space between paragraphs and plenty of space around images, thus drawing readers' eyes to the important elements.

5. Vary text density. Instead of filling each page with long paragraphs, change it up—a couple of paragraphs, a list, a short paragraph, or even a single sentence.

6. Use headings and subheadings. Headings break up text visually and organize information in a logical way.

Types of Image Errors

First of all, you need to watch for image content problems. The ability to recognize common image errors is important for graphic designers, and the more familiar proofreaders are with these, the better they will be able to recognize when something is wrong with a photo or piece of art. Does the picture match the caption? Is the picture the right way around? Is it referenced the right way? Never assume that the compositor or layout artist has everything done perfectly. Look at every aspect.

The ability to recognize common image errors is important. There are many ways technical faults, file damage, and correction errors can appear in images. It is important to be able to identify these problems so the images can either be corrected or rejected.

Even if you are not directly involved in digital correction, it is still worth knowing how to judge image quality. To help make sense of the large range of errors that need to be checked, it is useful to group them into categories. The problems can then be sorted according to severity.

First are technical faults, which can be subdivided into external and internal. External faults are the obvious ones, such as seeing which file format is being used, making sure there is a file extension, and checking the file size. Less obvious is whether the file, or even the embedded color profile itself, has been corrupted, making it hard to open an image. Other problems related to opening an image can be deliberate, such as images having watermarks or file security locks. The list of internal faults includes a broad range of things, such as the color mode of the image, image bit depth, pixel aspect ratio, and file resolution. The file should be checked to see if the relevant metadata has been included and whether any sound, text, or a color profile has been attached. File information must be checked as well to see if the relevant metadata has been included. Fortunately, most of this can be automated using image quality utilities.

Second are quality faults, those that occurred when the image was captured or corrected. These are often harder to detect and include things such as color problems or image damage. Here is a list of common problems with images.

• Interpolation—when an image is increased in file size without re-scanning, so the extra pixels required have to be invented as there is no reference to the original

• Posterization—when there are not enough tones to keep color gradients smooth, resulting in blocks of color

• Overcompression—a distinct square pattern becomes very noticeable when an image is too compressed

• Oversharpening—when the difference in contrast around image details is exaggerated

Types of Table and Figure Errors

Tables contain information organized into discrete rows and columns. Figures consist of all other illustrative material, such as charts, graphs, drawings, and schematic illustrations.

Tables and figures are intended to supplement text. In order to do this properly, they must be of publication quality resolution. Before including tables and figures in a document, authors should consult this checklist:

• Is the table or figure necessary?

• Is the table or figure simple, clean, and free of extraneous detail?

• Are the data plotted accurately? Is the grid scale correctly proportioned?

• Is the lettering large and dark enough to read?

• Are other tables or figures prepared according to the same scale?

• Are terms spelled correctly?

• Are all abbreviations and symbols explained in a legend or caption?

• Are the symbols, abbreviations, and terminology in the table or figure consistent with those in the caption, in other tables and figures, and in the text?

• Are the tables and figures numbered consecutively?

• Are all tables and figures mentioned in the text?

As a general rule, only include tables and figures if they add value to the document. If a table or figure merely repeats what is written in the text, do not include it.

Types of Layout Errors

A layout is a design for the overall appearance of a printed page, with particular emphasis on the effective arrangement of page elements. Many people think typography only consists of selecting a typeface, choosing a font size, and deciding whether it should be regular or bold. However, there is much more to good typography and good layout.

One of the most important aspects of page layout is spacing. Readers love white space. Crowded, busy "gray pages"—pages that are covered with thick, undifferentiated text—may cause readers not to read the message.

Various strategies can be used to avoid gray pages and produce pages that are attractive and easy to read:

• Measure: The measure is the length of a line of type. To a reader's eye, long or short lines can be tiring and distracting. A long measure disrupts the rhythm because the reader has a hard time locating the next line of type. The only time a narrow measure is acceptable is with a small amount of text. For optimum readability, the measure should be 40–80 characters, including spaces. For a single-column design, 65 characters is considered ideal.

• Leading: This is the space between the lines of type in a document, which plays a big role in readability. Correctly spaced lines make it easier for readers to follow the type and improves the overall appearance of text. Many factors affect leading: typeface, type size, weight, case, measure, and word spacing.

• Vertical Rhythm: A baseline grid is the foundation for consistent typographic rhythm on a page. It allows readers to easily follow the flow of text, which increases readability. A continuous rhythm in the vertical space keeps all the text on a consistent grid so that proportion and balance are retained throughout the page, no matter the type size, leading, or measure.

• Widows and Orphans: A widow is a short line or single word at the end of a paragraph. An orphan is a word or short line at the beginning or end of a column that is separated from the rest of the paragraph. Widows and orphans create awkward rags, interrupt the reader's eye, and affect readability. They can be avoided by adjusting the type size, leading, measure, wordspacing, or letterspacing or by entering manual line breaks.

• Emphasis: Giving emphasis to a word without interrupting the reader is important. Italics is widely considered to be the ideal form of emphasis. Some other common forms of emphasis are bold, caps, small caps, type size, color, underline, or a different typeface. No matter which you choose, try to limit yourself to using only one. Combinations such as caps-bold-italics are disruptive and look clumsy.

• Clean Rags: When setting a block of text unjustified with a left or right alignment, be sure to keep the rag (the uneven side) balanced without any sudden "holes" or awkward shapes. A bad rag can be unsettling to the eye and distract the reader. A good rag has a "soft" unevenness, without any lines that are too long or too short.

• Headings and Sub-headings: Like newspaper headlines, these devices not only break up the busy look of a gray page, but also help readers by indicating the main sections or sub-sections of a document.

• Indents: As a rule, anything that increases white space also enhances a document's appearance and readability. Indents add white space and give shape and definition to a paragraph.

• Block Quotations: Chicago style says that a quotation must be in block form if it is six to eight lines or a hundred words or more. Different styles have different requirements for block quotes. By convention, these chunks of quoted material are usually single-spaced, indented on both sides, and set off from the surrounding text. In effect, this highlights the material and makes it easier to recognize.

• Bullet Lists: Information that can be presented in list form is generally easier to comprehend and remember than the same information presented in a regular paragraph. As a rule, bullet lists should be used when the exact order or sequence of the items (e.g., a grocery list) is of no particular importance. The bullet symbols themselves should be appropriate to the overall document and page design; for example, "smiley-face" or other fanciful bullets might suit a children's text, but would be out of place in a professional document.

• Numbered Lists: Numbered lists should be used to present information where the exact order or sequence is important (e.g., a recipe or a set of instructions).

• Figures, Tables, and Illustrations: Images always attract readers' attention and can keep a page from looking gray. The same may be said for charts, figures, and tables—especially when they involve the use of color. But be careful not to add too much color or too many images; this can result in an overly busy page. Make sure to place a figure or illustration exactly where it belongs on the page, positioning it not only to add balance and harmony to the entire page, but also to maintain the figure's proximity and relationship to the text.

Layout and Reader Comprehension

A successful layout starts with the smart use of typography. Why do some documents grab readers' attention more than others? Why are some documents hard to read and understand? What makes a document clear? Quite often, the answer lies in the design of the document—how the designer has integrated text, visual aids, and type to engage readers. Well-designed documents

• help readers visualize and understand information;

• help readers locate information;

• emphasize key points or ideas;

• build relationships with readers; and

• are more persuasive than documents with poor layouts.

Good document layout and design help readers easily get what they need from a document. Good document design makes information visually accessible. Graphics, tables, and formatting can add a lot to your document, but how you approach these features can make a significant difference in how easy they are to manage. If a graphic jumps around when you click it, or if tables fall off the page and have columns that don't line up, the impression your document makes is unlikely to be the one you intended. It's important to keep your documents well-built and easy to manage. Often, that means keeping it simple—the less you do, the better your document will be. This doesn't mean you should avoid complex documents. It means that complex documents don't have to be complicated.

The purpose of communicating is to build understanding, but there is a huge gap between readers looking at your written message and fully understanding its contents. A well-designed document can communicate more information to readers than a badly designed document. It is important to differentiate between the message, the medium, the way you communicate the message, and "noise" (things that interfere with comprehension). The concept of noise disrupting communication is easy to appreciate when you are talking with someone face-to-face; what many people fail to appreciate is that the same principles apply to written communication. In the context of written documents, noise includes clutter, unnecessary embellishments, and poor word flow that makes reading difficult. The concept of layout design is separate from content design. Good document design will not overcome badly written content; however, a poorly designed document will significantly reduce readers' comprehension of the message you are trying to convey.

Summary

Again, there is no single correct way to format a document. However, as we've seen time and again, consistency is always correct. Appropriately formatted headings will lead a reader through a document quickly and efficiently. Appropriately formatted images and figures will provide wonderful support for a carefully constructed experiment, and appropriately formatted captions and descriptions help those images and figures attain that goal

Last Updated: 09/09/2022