Introduction

This topic is the first looking at the many different elements of film language. The focus for now is on what we call film form (the visual aspects of film), which includes:

• Editing

• Cinematography

• Lighting and colour

• Mise-en-scène

• Sound

To begin with, it is good to think about a film as a kind of text that contains its own language established through visuals and narrative. Like all languages, all the different elements form a relationship once it’s learned that then produces meanings and allows communication from the filmmakers to the audience.

As we work through this topic and the next one, you will be both learning the terminology of film language in order to analyse film texts for meaning and subtext. As filmmakers, it is important to understand how your creative decisions may be interpreted by your audiences, as well as understanding why you are making those decisions in the first place.

In this topic we will look at the following:

• Begin to learn and apply film language to analyse film

• History of film form

• The elements of form

• Applying formal analysis

By the end of the topic you should be able to:

• Understand the different elements of film form

• Understand how to use those elements to analyse meaning in film

• Analyse a short film sequence

To continue this introduction, please read the required reading; Robert P. Kolker’s “The film text and film form” from The Oxford Guide to Film Studies.

History of Film Form

Before we start moving through our terminology for film form, let’s look at the development and discourse of form in both film studies and film production. Initial manipulations of form are evident in the earliest produced films by French film pioneers, the Lumière Brothers, and American filmmaker, Edwin S. Porter. Below is an example of the Lumière Brothers first films that were screened at the Grand Café in Paris in 1895. Some film historians have labelled this event the ‘birth of cinema’, as it was where the brothers showed the public their invention of the cinématographe for the first time. You will see in their selection of short films fairly rudimentary camera work by today’s standards (mostly static or locked off shots) displaying documentary-style subject matter, such as workers leaving the Lumière factory. There is one film, however, that experiments a bit further with film form. Can you pick which one?

Consider Edwin S. Porter’s The Great Train Robbery (1903). It's contains early instances of many film form techniques that would go on to become commonplace. Can you see what techniques are being used?

While experimentation in form grew from cinema’s beginning in the mid-1890s, so did the discourse and analysis of form. In terms of a theoretical approach to form we have two early schools of thought that can be aligned with two important film theorists — Sergei Eisenstein and André Bazin.

Sergei Eisenstein

Eisenstein was a Soviet montage filmmaker and theorist (c. 1920s) who argued that the capacity of film to create meaning is not through the shot alone, but through the sequencing of multiple shots to create meaning. In other words, he privileged the edit above other elements of film production. As Kolker (1998, p. 15) states, Eisenstein believed that raw footage is the material that the filmmaker begins with in order to construct their film. The construction occurs through the piecing together of the footage to create conflicts, juxtapositions and other relationships that establish meaning for the audience. In his own work, Eisenstein used the specific form of montage editing with an aim to shock his audience and make them think about the meanings that are created through his contrasting of images.

Take a look at this excerpt from Eisenstein’s film October: Ten Days That Shocked the World (1928). This was a film made to mark the 10 year anniversary of the Russian Revolution (1917–1918). What message do you think he is wanting to get across to his audience through these images?

André Bazin

Bazin was a French film critic and theorist who wrote numerous prolific works on cinema in various capacities. For instance, we will look at some of his work later in this unit in relation to the film auteur. However, in relation to film form, Bazin argued that film should be a realist medium, therefore, placing emphasis on the importance of the uninterrupted shot. As opposed to Eisenstein, Bazin believed that the edit shattered film’s potential to present an observable truth of the world around us. Of course, his view was very much opposed to that of Eisenstein.

Consider — Constructivist versus Realist

Do you agree with either Eisenstein’s or Bazin’s position (the cut versus the uninterrupted shot)? Or perhaps there is another way to think about the aim of film form? You can note down your ideas for tutorials this week.

As stated earlier, elements of film form include:

• Editing

• Cinematography

• Lighting and colour

• Mise-en-scène

• Sound

In the following pages, we are going to go through each of these elements and break them down further into the terminology we used for descriptions. The purpose, however, is always to analyse how these elements are used to produce meaning and further our understanding of story, character and subtext (which we look at further in the narrative topic). There will be examples throughout, so while you are watching consider what information is being told to the viewer through the use of form.

Editing

What is editing?

Bordwell and Thompson state in their book Film Art: An Introduction, “Editing may be thought of as the coordination of one shot with the next” (2001, p 249). As you may have already had experience in editing footage yourself in previous units, you have had to decide which shots to keep and what ones to get rid of, as well as choosing a particular editing technique to join the shots together. These techniques can include:

• Jump cut — when a shot cuts to a later moment in time (often only seconds or minutes) using the same set-up, providing a sense of time being missed, skipped, or "jumping" forward.

• Dissolve — one shot fades into the next

• Fade (in/out, black/white) — shot fades to or from a black or white screen

• Match on action — movement is carried over two shots (smooths out the transition between shots)

• Graphic match — shots are linked through similarities in shape (see images below)

• Shot/reverse shot — commonly used to edit conversations between people, following the 180° rule (see explanation in ‘Continuity editing’ below), we see a shot of a person, cuts to a shot of the second person. It gives the impression they are looking at each other.

• Eyeline match — a sequence of shots that shows a person looking offscreen, then the next shot shows what they are looking at (both the person and object do not appear in the same shot)

Filmmakers will use combinations of these techniques to manipulate time and space and to create a particular pace to their film. We can also consider rhythmic editing that refers to how fast or slow the cuts occur. The rhythm established through editing can create mood and atmosphere to a setting or imply aspects of story and character (e.g. fast cutting can create a sense of chaos).

Examples

Source: http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/2011/05/25/graphic-content-ahead/

In this clip from McCabe and Mrs Miller (Altman, 1971), look at how editing is used to create tension. What elements of editing do you notice? Write them down.

Continuity editing

The term ‘continuity editing’ refers to using editing techniques for narrative continuity when used in conjunction with other elements of form. The purpose of continuity editing is to make the flow of the narrative logical, in terms of space for example. It is supposed to be invisible so the viewer can concentrate and be involved in the story.

One of the main elements of continuity editing is the ‘axis of action’ or ‘180° degree rule/line’ that is used to ensure characters are positioned logically within a given space and the geography of that space does not become confusing for the viewer.

See the screenshots below from Vertigo (Hitchcock, 1958). Space is established with the characters looking at one another and is then followed by shot reverse shots as they speak. We always see Midge on screen left and Scottie on screen right. If they then switched sides, it would mean that the axis has been crossed and it would not make spatial sense as we watched it.

This is not to say that it isn't ever appropriate to "cross the line". If you are making a film where you are trying to intentionally disorient the viewer, or you've reached a part of the movie where you want to wrong-foot the audience, you might opt to bend this "rule".

Editing and temporality (time)

Continuity editing will also normally give a linear sense of time. Events that are played out in the narrative will occur in chronological order. Parallel editing and crosscutting are two techniques used in linear storytelling where the viewer gets an understanding of multiple events occurring at the same moment in the narrative. We may get a shot of one event happening in one location, then an immediate cut to another event in a different location, then back to the first event again.

The opposite can also be used and is becoming more common in commercial filmmaking, where non-linear editing is used to manipulate narrative time for various reasons. Techniques here can include the use of flashbacks, flashforwards and episodes. Contemporary discontinuity editing can be used to emphasise emotion, key events, or narrative shifts.

Finally, editing manipulates time through the potential to condense or elongate time. For example, the steps sequence Brian De Palma’s The Untouchables (1987), an homage to Eisenstein’s ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence from Battleship Potemkin (1925), uses cutting and slow-motion to increase the length of time it takes for the shootout to occur and the baby to roll down the stairs.

Cinematography

At its most fundamental level, when we discuss cinematography we are talking about the shot. The shot gives a particular point of view of narrative events and we as viewers are told a lot of information simply through how the shot is constructed and moves.

We can divide the formal elements of cinematography into movement, framing or composition and angles.

Movement

• Pan — shot swivels left/right or right/left. Imagine standing still and turning your head to the left or right.

• Tilt — shot tilts up or down. Imagine standing still and looking up or down.

• Pedastalling — the whole camera raises or lowers. Imagine maintaining your eye level, but crouching down or standing up.

• Tracking — the camera is on tracks, or a cart, and moves forwards/backwards, or left/right. These are also known as "dolly shots".

• Zoom in/out — the camera doesn’t move, however, the focal length is adjusted to narrow (in) or widen (out) on subjects

• Handheld — rough movement giving the impression of mobility and realism

• Steadicam — smooth and stable movement

• Static (locked off) — shot does not move

The following video essay elucidates how the whip pan (a quick pan) has become one of the trademarks of director Wes Anderson. Not only does it demonstrate Anderson's reliance on the technique, but it also details the various ways he uses this technique to tell his stories.

Framing

When we refer to framing, we are looking at the way point of view (the position of people, events or objects in the shot) is being directed and contained by the borders of the frame.

Part of looking at the framing of the shot, we can also consider the distance established between the camera and its subject. Once again, distance can give us information about how a character is feeling or whether an object or action is of particular significance if a close-up shot is used. On the other hand, a wide shot can assist in establishing location, setting and space as an introduction to the film’s events.

For instance, Ilsa’s sadness at leaving Sam at the end of Casablanca (Curtiz, 1942) would not have as much impact if the shot were further away.

The framing of characters and objects can tell us certain things about the story, such as the power dynamics between characters. Consider this clip from Jonathan Demme's 1991 film The Silence of the Lambs. How does the framing help us to understand the how these characters feel about each other, and who has the upper hand?

Angles

Camera angles are normally considered in reference to the height of the camera placement and can suggest information about a character’s psychological state or morality, as well as other subtextual themes and meanings.

The types of angles used include:

• High — angle is directed downwards of the action/characters

• Low — angle is directed upward to the action/characters

• Level — a shot that is straight on

• Overhead/crane — action normally takes place from high above, sometimes looking downwards

• Point-of-view (POV) — shows the perspective of a character

• Canted (also known as a Dutch tilt) — angle is askew or tilted

An example of a canted angle shot can be seen in The Third Man (Welles, 1949).

Lighting and colour can also be considered in relation to cinematography. Let’s look at lighting now…

Lighting

Lighting is an important element in a film’s visual style, as it draws our attention to the setting, objects and action and gives us subtle information about characters.

Some of the lighting techniques used are:

• High or low contrast — the degree to which shadows exist or not. High equals fewer shadows; low equals more shadows

• Chiaroscuro lighting (Rembrandt lighting) — the arrangement of light and dark areas within the frame using lighting (creates a number of shadows)

• Natural lighting — light illuminated from a natural source in the scene (e.g. the sun if shooting externally during the day)

• Alternative light sources (e.g. reflections off objects — see the example from 2001: A Space Odyssey [Kubrick, 1968] below)

Variations on these techniques by experimenting with:

• Key light — main light source

• Backlights — lighting source illuminates the subject from behind

• Fill lights — lighting sources that balance out the key light in various positions around the subject

Lights can also be placed in front, under, to the side, or over the top of the subject/scene, to produce more nuanced lighting designs that can enhance atmosphere and our understanding of characters’ psychological states, such as:

• Hard or ‘harsh’ lighting for evil characters

• Soft lighting for more gentle characters

Let’s look at some specific examples:

Apocalypse Now (Coppola, 1979) — Captain Willard’s face is partly in the light but partly obscured in the dark. We could understand this to signify the beginning of his descent into darkness, which happens throughout the film.

Marie Antoinette (Coppola, 2006) — The film uses high-key lighting throughout to eliminate many of the shadows and provide a softer, brighter image. The softness is used to enhance Marie Antoinette’s femininity and reveal her personality.

2001: A Space Odyssey —In this shot, the reflective light from the spacecraft computer system onto the glass of Dr Bowman’s helmet makes logical sense considering his location. However, it also suggests a more thematic reading to do with questioning the boundaries between humanity and technology such as artificial intelligence, which a number of science fiction films explore. As the film continues, the astronauts slowly progress to moving and sounding more like the computers than the ship’s onboard system, HAL.

The "film noir" genre (French for "black film") often features high contrast "chiaroscuro" lighting reminicent of the German expressionist cinema of the 1920s. This lighting style suits film noir for a couple of reasons: 1) these films were made very cheaply so it was a good way of hiding a crumby set, and 2) these films were "black" in the sense that their characters were often immoral, or amoral. They lived in shadow figuratively as well as literally.

Colour

Colour is important in the same ways as lighting. It can tell us more about the story world, characters and themes of the film. As film scholars Timothy Corrigan and Patricia White suggest in The Film Experience: An Introduction, “the expressive use of colour in film has evolved through artistic vision and technical innovation — from hand-tinting to Technicolour experiments to faster stocks and digital processing” (2012, p. 115). As a result, considerable thought is put into the use of colour in film that many viewers may not consciously pick up on, but it helps in understanding the story.

A very deliberate use of two different colour filters is used in The Matrix (Wachowskis, 1999) to distinguish between the world of the Matrix (green) and the real world outside it (blue). What feeling does each world have? Sickly, cold, technologically driven?

Certain colours can symbolise certain ideas or meanings. For instance, the colour red can imply passion and desire, or anger and rage. Do all colours have definite meanings? What can change the way a colour could be interpreted? Consider this when you are dressing your set with props and actors in their costumes and make-up.

Finally, in this scene from Edward Scissorhands (Burton, 1990). Think about how the use of lighting and colour (or lack thereof) tell us about the story world and its characters. Write a few points of response to this clip answering this question — “How does the use of lighting and colour tell us about the story world and its characters in Edward Scissorhands?”

Mise-en-scène

In the previous example of Edward Scissorhands, we can also look at how the mise-en-scène tells us about the era that its set in. Peg’s clothing and car suggests that the film could be set in the 1960s or 70s. While it remains a little ambiguous as to the era, the costumes and props look like they are from the recent past and not from 1990 when the film was actually released. Costumes and props are two of the elements found within the mise-en-scène that help establish setting and time and, like everything within a film, can be chosen either for realism or be more stylised to enhance the themes and subtext.

Mise-en-scène is a French term that loosely translates to “putting into the scene”. In film studies terms we could also refer to it as everything we see within the frame. This can therefore include:

• Actors, movement and performance

This element refers to all aspects of performance, including bodily and facial movement. In the example at the end of this section from Dead Man (Jarmusch, 1995) consider Johnny Depp’s performance. What does his facial expression suggest? Also, consider an actor like Johnny Depp chosen to play this role. Actors are often chosen to play certain parts due to their physical appearance and acting style.

• Costumes and make-up

So far we could look at any of the examples in other sections of this topic and focus on the costuming and make-up of the characters. Both of these elements allow the audience to gain a greater understanding of the personality, psychological motivation and physicality of characters. For instance, costumes can suggest a character’s class status (e.g. dirty and ripped up if poor and living on the streets). Make-up can be used to create bruising, cuts or a pale pallor if a character has been injured or is sick (physically or mentally). Just like Ewan McGreggor's character in Trainspotting (Boyle, 1996).

• Setting

Can refer to an already existing location such as the Australian outback, as in Nicholas Roeg's Walkabout (1971), or can be a constructed set in a studio. This would also include the use of a green or blue screen and computer technologies (CGI) in creating or re-creating settings and places like in the shot below from Gladiator (Scott, 2000).

• Props

Objects used or having some function within the setting that helps the action continue. For example, the shower curtain in the infamous murder scene from Psycho (Hitchcock, 1960) is initially a part of the setting in the hotel bathroom but changes to a prop when Norman Bates uses it to wrap up Marion Crane’s body.

• Shapes and textures of these elements

Note: we could also include colour as an element that overlaps between lighting and mise-en-scène.

In this still image from The Artist (Hazanavicius, 2011), we can establish from the mise-en-scène that the film is set in the 1920s and that these two characters are famous due to both the costuming and the number of screaming fans behind them asking for autographs.

In this clip from Dead Man below, we see William Blake (Johnny Depp) travelling to a town called Machine. While the editing implies it’s a long journey, let’s also consider what the mise-en-scène is telling us about where he is going.

Sound

The final element to form that we will consider is the use of sound. There are a few ways we can refer to sound in film. They include:

• Loudness or volume

• Pitch: frequency of sound vibration (high or low)

• Timbre (pronounced tamber): harmonic components that give tone quality; the texture or ‘feel’ of a sound.

• Rhythm: refers to the beat or pulse, pace and tempo, patterns and accents. It is most recognisable in film music, but can also be heard in dialogue and sound effects. The rhythm of the sound can emphasise the mood or meaning within a film when used in conjunction with other sound characteristics — fast pace to emphasise excitement or chaos, slower pace to emphasise suspense or romance.

• Fidelity: refers to how faithful the sound is to its source. For example, if we hear a phone ring and see a phone on screen, the sound is faithful to its source — it has fidelity. The idea of fidelity is based on our expectation of what something should sound like. If we aren’t sure what something would sound like, for instance, such as the sound of a light sabre in Star Wars, we still find it believable as it fulfils our expectations for a light sabre sound.

We can also consider how sound can be unfaithful for certain reasons, perhaps through the dramatic accentuation of punches in a fight scene or in an experimental film. Some slapstick comedies used a completely different sound than what we would expect for effect.

Other techniques relating to sound include:

Sound bridge: the use of a sound, either music or an effect, which is used for smoothing out transitions between scenes.

Sound perspective: manipulation of sound characteristics like volume and pitch, suggesting where the sound is coming from and how close or distant the sound source is.

Motif and leitmotif: Sounds used to create a theme or are associated with a particular character, place, event, or idea. Specific musical phrases used in this way are called leitmotifs.

Space and time

Sound can give a sense of space and perspective via the characteristics detailed above. If the sound comes from a character or object in a scene, we call this sound diegetic, meaning that it occurs within the story space (the diegesis). Diegetic sound can occur both on-screen or off-screen, which also establishes the space. Consider the example of the phone ringing used earlier. Do we see the phone on screen or does the character need to exit the frame to another room to answer it? The sound takes place off-screen and therefore gives us information about the space that exists outside the frame.

Sounds that occur outside of the story space or world are called non-diegetic sounds. This can include the music added as a soundtrack to enhance mood or atmosphere, or a voice-over narration from a disembodied voice.

The distinction between diegetic and non-diegetic sound can become unclear, particularly with the idea of the voice over. As a post-production technique, voice-overs are always added after primary shooting, however, their function within the narrative can either be purely non-diegetic or what film theorist Christian Metz calls semi-diegetic. Semi-diegetic refers to sounds that are technically voice-overs, but function as a character’s thoughts, for example. The thoughts still arise within the world of the story from a source within the on-screen space, but no other characters can hear them.

Sound also relate to time in the way we watch films as well as the storytime. Firstly, sounds are made either synchronously (visibly made at the same time as we see the source) or asynchronously (the opposite effect, the timing of the source is out to a degree). Synchronous sound can include sounds like dialogue as we see characters talking, while asynchronous can be included for experimental purposes for comedic effect or to show a character as psychologically unstable from their point-of-view. It could also be due to poor post-production syncing.

Within the diegesis, sounds can occur simultaneously with the plot’s action, when what we hear is occurring at the same moment in time as the event we are seeing. By contrast, nonsimultaneous sound occurs when we hear sounds from events that have already occurred in the past or are going to occur in the story’s future, rather than the events we are actually watching on the screen.

When thinking about sound in film, consider the combination and mixing of sounds, both musical and non-musical, and how they are being used to give information and implicit meaning to the story and characters. Sound is sometimes an underrated or unnoticed element in film, but it is incredibly important in enhancing our understanding of a film’s story.

References

Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (2013). The Relation of Shot to Shot: Editing. Film Art: An Introduction (10th ed., pp. 72–110). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kolker, R. (1998). The film text and film form. In John Hill and Pamela Church Gibson (Eds.), The Oxford Guide to Film Studies (pp. 11–23). Oxford: Oxford UP.