Our brains work like a clever control centre for our entire body. This is where our bodies create signals that allow us to move, feel a range of emotions and moods and create a variety of sensations. Many chemical processes must take place for this to happen, and when these are interrupted or imbalanced it can lead to poor mental health or the development of serve mental health conditions. In this article, we look at how to chemical reactions take place in our brain and how this affects how we think and feel day to day, plus how drugs are used to alter these reactions to support positive mental health.

How the chemistry in our brain affects mental health

There are always chemical processes happening in our brains, it’s what allows us to function as human beings. All of our moods and feelings, both good and bad, happen because of chemical signals that occur in the brain. Here are some of the most common chemical processes that occur and how they make us feel.

Neurotransmitters

These are chemical messages that move between brain cells. This allows our bodies and brains to function normally. There are many different types of neurotransmitter present in the brain, each with a different role and function, like movement and emotion. Here are some of the most common neurotransmitters. 

DOPAMINE

These neurotransmitters control and regulate our feelings around motivation, happiness, and reward. When your brain nerve cells produce dopamine, you might feel very happy and experience feelings of pleasure. It’s typically released after pleasant activities, like eating nice food or spending time with friends and loved ones. Dopamine is also induced after taking drugs like cocaine, producing temporary feelings of euphoria and extreme energy. 

SEROTONIN

These neurotransmitters help to stabilize our moods, emotions, appetite, and sleep patterns. Serotonin also assists with physical bodily functions, like healthy digestion and the ability for our blood to clot when necessary. Serotonin is often called the “feel-good” neurotransmitter, associated with a feeling of happiness and comfort that comes after it's released into the body. When in proper balance, serotonin also helps keep a balance of our appetites, letting you feel full without craving foods like carbs. 

NOREPINEPHRINE

These neurotransmitters are part of our “fight or flight” response. This is how your body responds to danger, to help you either fight your threat or run from it. When the brain senses stress or fear it releases norepinephrine in the sympathetic nervous system, which actives fight or flight. This might appear in the form of a raised heart rate or fast breathing.

Hormones

These are different kinds of chemical signals in the brain that affect its function and our mental health. One of the most common hormones is cortisol, which is present in the body during feelings of stress. When it floods into the bloodstream, cortisol helps trigger actions that prepare the body for fight or flight, like a raised heart rate to pump more oxygen around your body. When cortisol is present in the body, it can also affect our ability to sleep well, our immune system and our metabolism. 

Inflammation

After an injury or infection, the body responds with inflammation. The brain can also become inflamed and release inflammatory cytokines. These are protein molecules produced in the immune system and they act as messenger systems between cells, which can interfere with the process of other neurotransmitters. 

Oxidative stress

Oxidative stress is damage that can happen when there is an imbalance between the production of harmful molecules known as free radicals and the body's ability to fight off and destroy them. The brain is very vulnerable to oxidative stress as it needs a lot of oxygen and uses a huge amount of energy, also the fat in its cells is susceptible to free radicals. This chemical stress can alter brain function and damage cells.

Epigenetic modifications

These are changes within our DNA that alter gene expression without changing our complete DNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications can be caused by things like excessive stress and affects the healthy function of the brain.

Chemical imbalances and mental health conditions

When chemical processes in our brain tick along normally, we will feel well both physically and mentally. However, when these functions are affected or interrupted, certain imbalances can occur. Over time, these imbalances can lead to a deterioration of mental and brain health.

Neurotransmitter imbalances

When neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine are imbalanced, either too low in production or too high, it can lead to the development of a range of mental health conditions like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. The cause of this imbalance may vary, some people are more genetically prone to imbalances, while other causes include environmental factors like chronic stress or poor diet. Neurotransmitter imbalance is addressed through medication or cognitive therapies.

Hormone imbalances

These imbalances in the brain can greatly affect both our mental and physical health. When hormones like cortisol are out of balance and very high, it can lead to regular negative mood changes. Alternatively, when cortisol is very low, it can trigger periods of depression. Melatonin, a hormone associated with sleep, can also be linked to insomnia (a condition where you struggle to fall and stay asleep) when imbalanced in the body. Hormone production can also be affected by genetics or a person’s environment. Imbalances are typically treated through drugs or some healthier lifestyle changes, like healthier diets and a focus on mental wellness.

Inflammation imbalances

When the brain experiences regular inflammation, mental health conditions like depression and anxiety often develop. This is due to the cytokines that are produced as part of the inflammation response blocking other neurotransmitters from carrying out their job, ie producing chemicals that make us feel happy, content and calm.

Oxidative stress imbalances

Conditions like depression and anxiety can also manifest due to oxidative stress. This is due to the fact it can damage our brain cells and alter healthy function.

Epigenetic modification imbalances

Alterations in gene expression are also thought to be linked to anxiety and depression.

How drugs help mental health conditions

While cognitive and talking therapies prove useful in managing mental health conditions, many people utilize medication to help alter their brain chemistry and make them feel happier. These different drugs help to rectify certain imbalances, some of the most common are detailed below.

Antidepressants

For people dealing with constant low moods and feelings of hopelessness (i.e. symptoms of depression) antidepressant medication is often prescribed. They work to increase the number of neurotransmitters in the brain that produce serotonin and norepinephrine, encouraging feelings of contentment. Common antidepressants include serotonin reuptake inhibitors like Prozac and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors like Effexor.  

Antipsychotics

When treating conditions like schizophrenia, antipsychotic drugs are used to help reduce the amount of dopamine created, which is thought to be a symptom of psychotic disorders. Various medications have been developed to assist with limiting these symptoms, including Risperdal and Zyprexa. 

Anxiolytics

These drugs are given to those struggling with anxiety disorders like generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. The presence of these drugs increases the activity of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid. It helps to calm the brain, which in turn reduces a person’s feelings of anxiety. Common anxiolytics are Xanax and Ativan. 

Stimulants

When someone is diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) they may be given stimulant medication that helps to counteract certain symptoms. These drugs boost the production of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, which allows easier concentration and focus (something those with ADHD find particularly difficult). The most common stimulant drugs are Ritalin and Dexedrine. 

Mood stabilizers

People who have bipolar disorder often suffer from very unstable and erratic moods. This is often caused by an imbalance of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitters in the brain. Most stabilizers help to regulate this production, and therefore regulate moods. Common mood stabilizers include Lithium and Depakote.

In conclusion, there remain regular studies into the brain and the chemical processes that take place within it. It is only by understanding the processes fully that we can understand the reasons and causes of mental health conditions. This allows further development of drugs that relieve negative mental symptoms, helping millions of people live happier and more fulfilling lives.

References

Ather, S. H. H. (2022, July 29). Unexpected Brain Chemistry Is behind the Element of Surprise. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/unexpected-brain-chemistry-is-behind-the-element-of-surprise/

Bessette, G. (2020, July 17). How brain chemistry affects mental health - Southside Medical Center. Southside Medical Center. https://southsidemedical.net/how-brain-chemistry-affects-mental-health/#:~:text=The%20brain%20itself%20depends%20on,affect%20a%20person's%20mental%20health.

Brain Chemistry & Your Mood: 4 hormones that promote happiness. (n.d.). Houston Methodist on Health. https://www.houstonmethodist.org/blog/articles/2021/sep/brain-chemistry-your-mood-4-hormones-that-promote-happiness/

Integration, C. (2023, March 17). How brain chemicals influence mood | UPMC HealthBeat. UPMC HealthBeat. https://share.upmc.com/2016/09/about-brain-chemicals/

One of the most important steps taken in healthcare is ensuring not only that drugs and medication work well, but also understanding how these medications interact with our bodies. This understanding is known as pharmacokinetics, and the study of it can help us learn more about human health. It means that medicinal chemists can develop better drugs and therapy solutions for patients in need when fighting viruses and diseases, as well as common everyday illness symptoms. In this article, we’ll explain exactly what pharmacokinetics is, the 4 stages of drug processing our bodies go through and the chemical reactions that take place throughout. 

What is pharmacokinetics?

Pharmacokinetics (often shortened to PK) is the study of how drugs and medication work in the body to rectify illness. It allows scientists to observe and understand the many chemical reactions that take place and learn how the body responds through the entire exposure to the medication, from when the substance first enters the body until it leaves. 4 main processes occur in pharmacokinetics, each allowing us to understand how medications react and target certain parts of the body. This allows doctors and healthcare providers to give or prescribe drugs that put patients at a lower risk of negative side effects and more effective results in curing or reducing their symptoms of illness.

How the body processes medication in 4 stages

ABSORPTION

When a drug is taken, or administered into the body, this begins the first stage of medication processing known as absorption. This medication may come in the form of a tablet or capsule and can be administered via a range of methods, most commonly through the mouth or through the veins. This is an important stage of the process, as absorption affects the speed of medication entering the body as well as how much of the drug will reach the desired part of the body. Once taken, a drug enters the systemic circulation (the process that pumps blood throughout our body) which means it can travel throughout the body, or two a specific area if required. 

DISTRIBUTION

This stage looks into how a drug spreads in the body after being absorbed into the bloodstream. Many factors affect how the medication works its way around the body, this includes the ingredients and chemical makeup of a drug itself, and the biology of the person taking it. Drugs move through the bloodstream in two main ways: convection and diffusion. These movements can be affected by how well a drug can bind to areas of the body, and environmental factors like if a person is hydrated.

The aim of distribution is to ensure that medication reaches the desired area of the body, also known as drug concentration. Treatment is only considered effective if it reaches this key location and doesn't get bound to other proteins in the bloodstream enroute. When a medication becomes bound to proteins, this limits its activity, and therefore the effectiveness of the treatment. There is also the possibility and problem of drugs remaining in certain organs, which can also lead to variations in distribution throughout the body.

METABOLISM

This is a key process in drug processing that our bodies go through in order to change or break down medicines and drugs. Lots of important chemical reactions take place in the metabolic stage to transform drugs into water-soluble substances, meaning easily dissolvable in water. Drug metabolism usually happens in the liver but can also happen in other areas of the body, like the lungs or kidneys. Our livers contain a lot of enzymes (special chemicals that help with chemical reactions) that are beneficial in drug processing, which is why it mainly takes place in this organ. Metabolism happens in two key stages, find out more about each below and the chemical reactions that take place:

Phase I:

In this first phase of metabolism, molecules in drugs are changed through chemical reactions. Some of these reactions include oxidation (where a substance combines with oxygen or loses electrons), reduction (where oxygen is gained, the opposite of oxidation) and hydrolysis (the breaking down of a substance using water). Triggered by enzymes, specific groups of atoms on a drug molecule like hydroxyl (an oxygen atom and hydrogen atom bonded together), amine (a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more hydrogen atoms) or carboxyl groups (a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group) are exposed or added to. These chemical changes work to make medication more water soluble and easy for our bodies to get rid of.

Phase II:

In the second phase of metabolism, reactions take place meaning a large polar molecule is added to the substance, known as a conjugating molecule. This makes a substance even more water-soluble and easier for the body to continue to process. Common conjugating molecules are glucuronic acid, sulfate, glycine, and glutathione. Key enzymes work to make this second phase of metabolism occur, including UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), sulfotransferases (SULTs), and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). This completes the metabolism process so that medication can exit the body with ease.

EXCRETION:

This is the final process medication goes through on its journey in the body. Excretion is when drugs leave our system usually through our urine. Due to this, excretion commonly occurs in the kidneys, where we also produce pee. With certain drugs, however, this process can also take place in the lungs skin or gastrointestinal tract. This also means other exit routes from the body, including through poo, sweat, saliva and exhaled air. How quickly excretion occurs is dependent on a few factors like renal function (how healthy the kidneys are), hepatic clearance (how well our liver can remove substances from the bloodstream) and drug half-life (the time for serum drug concentrations to decrease by 50%).

In conclusion, an understanding of drug procession, or pharmacokinetics, is vital for better quality healthcare. It means better treatments can be offered, and drugs can be developed to work more effectively. This knowledge allows healthcare professionals to improve drug therapy, limit harmful side effects and keep medication safe and beneficial to use.

The call for sustainability is being heard in every industry, including pharmacology and medicine. There are now demands for a more sustainable approach, an eco-friendlier way of developing and producing medicines. This has become known as “green chemistry” and it’s being pushed for now more than ever by environmentalists concerned with the dangerous effects of pharmaceutical production on our natural world. In this article, we look into what defines green chemistry, why it’s necessary and important eco-conscious measures that the medical industry is already taking to limit their destructive output.

What is green chemistry?

Green chemistry is a scientific approach that aims to reduce the toxic and harmful substances used in the production of drugs and medicines. It looks to limit the negative effects of chemicals and medicinal products throughout their entire lifecycle. Green chemistry is a concept created by scientists Paul Anastas and John Warner in the late 1990s. They developed a 12 step system for a cleaner pharmaceutical industry. You can find out more about them below:

1. Prevention - it’s better and easier to stop the production of waste than clear it up.

2. Atom economy - synthetic production should maximize incorporating materials in the final product.

3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses - synthesis practices should have a limited effect on the environment and human health.

4. Designing Safer Chemicals - products and medicines should be effective with minimal toxicity.

5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries - solvents should only be used when necessary.

6. Design for Energy Efficiency - the energy used in production should be monitored and minimized.

7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks - materials used to make medication should be renewable.

8. Reduce Derivatives - unnecessary drug derivatives should be avoided to limit further waste.

9. Catalysis - catalysts should be prioritized to make production more efficient and less wasteful.

10. Design for Degradation - chemical products should be created to naturally degrade.

11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention - ways to asses harm and toxicity in real-time must be created.

12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention - substances in chemical products should be safe and limit the risk of hazards.

Why is eco-friendly medicine important?

It’s vital that pharmaceutical companies take a step towards eco-friendly medicines and production methods. This can help to preserve our natural world, as well as avoid endangering human health. Find out why it’s so important below:

Kinder to the environment

One of the biggest concerns the pharmaceutical industry poses to the environment is that of harmful chemical waste. These toxic waste substances can then go on to contaminate soil and water, causing global pollution. Green chemistry would limit the harmful waste being emptied into the environment.

Cares for human health

Continued improper waste disposal leads to the destruction of soils that would be used to grow crops, as well as contaminating drinking water. This poses a serious risk to human health and needs to be rectified. For example, by using more biodegradable materials that can end their life cycle with little impact on the surrounding environment.

Preserves resources

Pharmacology companies often use raw materials and energy sources to produce their drugs and medication. By using more resource-efficient methods, like renewable materials, allows for global conservation.

Helps with future health challenges.

A new development in eco-friendly medicines may also be able to address some of the world’s growing health concerns. For example, there is currently concern about antibiotic-resistant diseases and forms of cancer that require a more targeted kind of drug to treat.

New sustainable steps in the medical field

There remains much work still to be done until the pharmaceutical industry can be considered completely sustainable. There are already many eco-initiatives already being taken by many companies to limit their damaging output. Find out more about these sustainable changes below:

Greener drug synthesis

Drug synthesis refers to the process of creating medicines by combining chemical compounds of substances. This is a process that notoriously requires a lot of energy that generates a large amount of pollutive waste. In order to make drug synthesis more sustainable, some companies are choosing to use flow chemistry methods of production. Flow chemistry is when substances are combined continuously with small reactors, rather than in batches, as is typical in drug production. This is an effective way to reduce the consumption of energy, while also making the whole synthesis process more streamlined and efficient.

Eco-conscious packaging

Product packaging is a growing waste concern in all industries, and pharmacology is no exception. Changes are now being made to ensure that all cases used to store medicines and medical products are more biodegradable, reducing the contributions to global pollution. With some companies now choosing to use renewable materials, they can easily break down at the end of their lifecycle through compositing, for example.

Sustainable solvents

Solvents are liquid substances that help create solutions that form medications and drugs. While they are often a key element of pharmaceutical production and research, solvents leave behind toxic traces that endanger the environment and human health. “Green” solvents are now being trialed in labs, made from renewable, non-toxic substances like farm crops. This also helps promote energy efficiency and reduces overall waste output. Scientists are also exploring completely solvent-free methods of solution creation like grinding (where substances are ground down into fine powders) which many consider more time efficient, effective, and of course, sustainable.

Optimizing production processes

There have been many calls to make production methods more efficient and sustainable in order to limit the consumption of energy. One of the best ways to optimize drug production is through a process known as continuous manufacturing. This is when medical products or drugs are produced in a continuous cycle rather than in batches, as has been the typical method. An alternative method of optimization would be intensification. This is where chemical reactions are made more efficient by combining multiple steps of the process, often aided by innovative technologies and methods.

Use of biobased feedstocks

Feedstocks are the raw materials that are used when making medicines and drugs. Some of these feedstocks are chemicals in nature, which can generate hazardous, harmful waste. To make drug production greener, companies should consider switching to purely biobased, renewable feedstocks. For example, plants and microorganisms are both sustainable and environmentally conscious to both source and use in medicine creation. Biofuels (like bioethanol and biodiesel) are a display of plant-based feedstocks and action, and much kinder to the planet than fossil fuels.

Use of bioenergy

Bioenergy comes from organic, renewable materials, rather than fossil fuels or nuclear energy. While energy is vital in effective drug production, using harmful energy can drain the world of important natural resources. Bioenergy is made from plants and food waste to power pharmaceutical machinery and equipment. Biogas, for example, is made from the waste material manure, and can be used to generate heat and electricity that powers devices without environmental damage.

In conclusion, sustainable materials and practices need to become more commonplace in our modern pharmaceutical industry. This is a vital step forward that can help preserve our environment and human health for generations to come. Primarily, this can be achieved through the use of renewable, natural materials, optimized production and the use of sustainable energy. 

References:

Agbenyega, J., PhD. (2022, September 23). Green chemistry in the pharma industry: Sustainable pastures for those who innovate. CAS. https://www.cas.org/resources/cas-insights/sustainability/green-chemistry-pharma-industry

Constable, D. J. C. (2021). Green and sustainable chemistry – The case for a systems-based, interdisciplinary approach. iScience, 24(12), 103489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.103489

Making chemistry greener. (2015, April 15). ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/04/150421163327.htm

Moermond, C., Puhlmann, N., Brown, A. R., Owen, S. F., Ryan, J., Snape, J., Venhuis, B. J., & Kümmerer, K. (2022). GREENER Pharmaceuticals for more sustainable healthcare. Environmental Science and Technology Letters, 9(9), 699–705. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00446

When wounds, tears or incisions to the skin occur, it’s important to sanitize and disinfect the area with topical antiseptics. This helps prevent the spread of bacteria that could lead to infection. Different types of antiseptics are used for varying purposes, and the chemical process that occurs depends on the active ingredient within the antiseptic. In this article, we look into exactly how topical antiseptics help protect and heal wounds, plus how different types of antiseptics work to disinfect.

What are topical antiseptics?

Topical antiseptics are antimicrobial agents that kill or reduce the number of microorganisms that may become responsible for the infection of a wound. They can help protect open cuts in the skin from bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and prions. Different types of antiseptics work through various chemical mechanisms to inhibit the growth of these harmful microorganisms. Antiseptics should not be confused with antibiotics, which in turn destroy from within the body, rather than on the surface. While antiseptics are known as skin disinfectants, standard disinfectants are reserved for non-living objects (surgical tools, for example).

The role chemistry plays in different types of antiseptic.

Alcohol-based antiseptics:

Antiseptics that have an alcohol base contain one of two water-soluble compounds: ethanol or isopropanol. Both compounds are effective at killing bacteria and even some viruses. The actions of alcohol-based antiseptics used the chemistry of alcohol molecules to be effective against the spread of bacteria. These particular molecules are made up of hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-fearing) parts. When alcohol antiseptics encounter harmful bacteria, the hydrophobic part of the molecule enters the cell membrane which alters its structure. This causes the cell to then rupture and die. The hydrophilic part dissolves in the water of the surrounding area of a wound, acting as a vacuum to clear away any debris on the surface of the skin. 

One of the main benefits of alcohol-based antiseptics is how quickly they work. Once applied to the skin they effectively can kill a wide range of microorganisms that would otherwise prove harmful to the body. One of the most common examples of alcohol-based antiseptics is hand sanitizers, which help prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Alongside promoting healthy hand hygiene in everyday life, these kinds of antiseptics are also used by healthcare professionals before operations to avoid infecting wounds with harmful bacteria.

Iodine-based antiseptics:

Iodine is a halogen element that is highly effective as a topical antiseptic and in treating clinical wounds. In practice for over 100 years, iodine-based antiseptics are some of the most tried and true ways to kill off bacteria, fungi, and viruses from open wounds. It’s particularly effective due to its natural antiseptic properties as an element, with the ability to disrupt (and ultimately destroy) proteins and cell membranes. As a very small molecule, iodine is able to rapidly penetrate microorganisms and oxidize proteins like nucleotides and amino acids, which leads to the death of the cell. A higher concentration of iodine in an antiseptic is more effective at killing bacteria, however, this can cause skin irritation and damage. Organic matter, such as blood, can also affect iodine’s effectiveness as they bind with iodine ions, which limits its availability to react.

Commonly, iodine-based antiseptics are used prior to surgical procedures to sterilize an area, in wound care and healing and as a general way to effectively cleanse surfaces of harmful bacteria and viruses. While successful at protecting the body against a wide range of bacteria and viruses, one of the downsides of iodine is that it can leave a brown stain on the skin which is difficult to remove. When used in wound healing, this can also discolor wounds, which can make healing difficult to monitor.

Chlorhexidine:

This antiseptic and disinfectant is a cationic bisbiguanide compound which has a broad ability to destroy germs and bacteria. Commonly used to maintain oral hygiene health, chlorhexidine helps with mouth infections, ulcers, and gum disease. The antimicrobial activity of chlorhexidine is possible due to its ability to bind to harmful cells, which disrupts entire membrane structures. Once bound to a cell, it alters the permeability of the membrane which leads to the leaking of intracellular components. This leakage ultimately means the death of a harmful cell.

Chlorhexidine is typically combined with other ingredients and anesthetics to numb pain, for example in throat medication. Commonly, it is present in mouthwashes and in the form of lozenges to help maintain mouth and throat health. It may also be used in hospitals to clean and prep surgical equipment for surgery, to ensure infectious bacteria is not spread to open wounds and incisions.

Hydrogen peroxide:

Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent, which makes it a particularly effective antiseptic. With the ability to break down into water and oxygen gas, this chemical compound is used worldwide to help treat and protect wounds from infection. When these topical antiseptics are applied to an affected area, they release oxygen and create free radicals. This causes foaming which damages the cell membrane by destroying key proteins and killing the cell in the process.

Alongside being used to treat minor cuts and wounds, hydrogen peroxide is also used in mouthwash to assist with positive oral hygiene. It can also be used to clean medical instruments prior to surgical procedures. Hydrogen peroxide is a popular antiseptic due to the fact it leaves behind no residue or stains, (unlike iodine-based antiseptics) plus it is also less toxic than other alternatives.

Quaternary ammonium compounds:

Quaternary ammonium compounds, also known as QACs, are a class of chemicals that contain a positively charged nitrogen atom that allows them to be antimicrobial against a wide spectrum of bacteria. This positive charge attracts the negative charge of microbial membranes, allowing QACs to penetrate and destabilize the cell. Reduced stability leads to leaking of key proteins and ions which results in complete cell death. Quaternary ammonium compounds can be highly effective when used as a topical antiseptic, most commonly in hand sanitizer. These chemicals can eliminate a range of bacteria, fungi and viruses including SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19.

In conclusion, the application of topical antiseptics to open wounds is vital in protecting the body from infection. Different types of antiseptics possess various chemical elements and processes that allow them to effectively destroy harmful microbial cells that might infect or cause viral diseases.