Urban Environment

The urban environment, which includes the scale, density and shape of neighborhoods in and around schools and between home and school, plays a role in ATS, though the literature implies it is less impactful than the other thematic areas. The one exception is the distance to school, which routinely is cited as the primary reason for failure to adopt ATS (Jacob et al. 2021, Kweon et al. 2023, Lu et al. 2014, Ross et al. 2020, Stewert et al. 2012.) Households that live closer to schools have higher rates of ATS (Kweon et al. 2023, McDonald et al. 2010, Nikitas et al. 2019, Stewert et al. 2012, Zhou et al. 2010.) Many researchers hypothesize the maximum distance for ATS participation, from as little as 1/4 mile (Ross et al. 2020,) 1 kilometer for walking (Kweon et al. 2023,) 1 mile (McDonald et al. 2016, Stewert et al. 2012, Zhou et al. 2010), and 3 kilometers for biking (Kweon et al. 2023.) One study found the likelihood of ATS decreased as distance increased: students living within ¼ mile 31% reduced odds of using ATS, while those living within ½ - 1 mile had only 18% reduced odds (Ross et al. 2020.) Data is often not disaggregated by mode, which makes it difficult to ascertain the value for walking versus biking (Lu et al. 2014.) 

Parental safety concerns associated with crime are significant barriers to ATS (Jacob et al. 2021, Kang & Diao 2022, Kweon et al. 2023, Lu et al. 2014, Nikitas et al. 2019, Stewert et al. 2012, Zhou et al. 2010) and focusing on neighborhood safety can have a positive equity impact (Jacob et al. 2021, Lucken et al. 2018, Stewert et al. 2012,) and a positive impact on girls' participation in ATS (McDonald et al. 2010.) Bike Buses in particular can act as a safety intervention through visibility and numbers (O'Keefe 2019, So 2023.) Similar to parental perceptions of social control, the presence of windows facing the street may aid ATS adoption (Stewert et al. 2012.)

Lastly, there are some indications that denser, mixed-use neighborhoods are associated with higher levels of ATS (Lucken et al. 2018, McDonald et al. 2010, Stewert et al. 2012.) School siting in particular is identified as a means to increase ATS; schools should be centrally sited, not located on the edges of neighborhoods or urban areas (Jacob et al. 2021, Lucken et al. 2018, McDonald et al. 2010.)