Resources

The Reconstruction Era after the Civil War was a time of struggle for African Americans. As slaves, they were clothed, housed and fed, but with slavery over, they were on their own. Most African Americans were penniless, illiterate and trained only for menial work. Excerpts from interviews of African Americans recounting childhood memories and the experiences of their families during Reconstruction are provided.

'American All': Reforging a National Brotherhood, 1876-1917

At the end of the Civil War, the concepts of a common nationality and the nation-state had gained currency. "Nonetheless, the meaning of national identity and loyalty continued to be as diverse and conflicting as the persisting regional differences. Other issues that complicated national identity included the intensification of class conflict; the growing number of workers who were Americans by immigration rather than by birth; the struggle of black Americans for full citizenship rights; the emergence of an independent women's movement; and the burgeoning influence of entrepreneurial businessmen seeking national markets." (HISTORY TODAY) The struggles, often conflicting, of these disparate groups to define the meaning of patriotism and what it meant to be an American in the aftermath of the Civil War shaped the emerging national identity. Reconciliation between the North and South came finally in response to external threats, such as the Spanish-American War.

"The Great Negro State of the Country": Arkansas's Reconstruction and the Other Great Migration.

An essay is presented concerning the history of voluntary African American migration to Arkansas from other U.S. southern states between 1870 and 1910. It discusses the economic, political, and social significance of African American migration to Arkansas, particularly political participation, the reunification of families that had been separated by slavery, and racial tolerance and economic opportunity in Arkansas.

All About that 40 Acres and a Mule

Focuses on the fallacy of American folk song `What About That Forty Acres and a Mule?' which refer to the compensation given to freed black slaves who participated in the 1861 American Civil War. Origin of the song; General William Sherman's offer of 40 acres to the freedmen.

The Freedmen's Bureau Records Project at the National Archives

"An unparalleled source of information on black life in the late 1860s and 1870s, the Freedmen's Bureau records at the National Archives in Washington, DC, document the Federal Government's treatment of emancipated slaves in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War. For all their value, deterioration due to age and the lack of microfilm copies and a name index had rendered the records difficult to use. To remedy this problem, Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Records Preservation Act of 2000, authorizing the Archivist of the United States to preserve the records for future generations and to establish partnerships with Howard University and other institutions for the purposes of indexing them and making them more accessible to the public." (CRM Journal) Examples of Freedmen's Bureau records at the National Archives are listed.

A Bold Break for Freedom

"Robert Smalls made a daring escape from slavery during the Civil War. His real battle, however, came when he tried to preserve the freedom he had won." (AMERICAN HISTORY) This article explores the life of Robert Smalls, a slave, who, in 1862, hijacked a Confederate ship and brought it North to freedom and who later was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Klan Skepticism and Denial in Reconstruction-Era Public Discourse.

The article discusses the history of the Ku Klux Klan during the Reconstruction period of U.S. history. It explores how public accounts of the Ku Klux Klan never agreed about its nature or its extent. Some of the subjects considered include changes in newspaper editorial practices and journalism during the period, sensationalism in the press, the rise of American popular culture, and efforts by the U.S. government to repress the organization's violence. A discussion of historical memory of the U.S. Civil War is also presented.

Black hope, white power: emancipation, reconstruction and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US South, 1861-1880.

Current explanations for the gap between African-American and white school achievement are inadequate; most cannot explain the high level of black school achievement in the decade after Emancipation. Further, traditional accounts of the origins of educational discrimination against African-Americans are inaccurate. The roots of educational discrimination began at the moment African-Americans first demanded access to education as slavery collapsed. White southerners responded to that demand with overwhelming force and violence, ranging from simple intimidation through incendiarism, physical violence, shootings and murder against students and teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Northern United States and the Genesis of Racial Lynching: The Lynching of African Americans in the Civil War Era.

The article presents an examination of racial lynching in northern states during the 1860s and in the period of Reconstruction following the United States Civil War. The article explores the collective violence of lynching and vigilantism and discusses how participation in these activities allowed individuals to resist the social, political and legal changes that were occurring throughout the country. The author shows that these acts of collective violence took place prior to the implementation of congressional Reconstruction and were not restricted to southern states.

The Southern “Black Codes” of 1865-66

The end of the Civil War marked the end of slavery for 4 million black Southerners. But the war also left them landless and with little money to support themselves. White Southerners, seeking to control the freedmen (former slaves), devised special state law codes. Many Northerners saw these codes as blatant attempts to restore slavery.

Society in Reconstruction

On this Day: May 30, 1968

Analysis of Post-Reconstruction Period

Jim Crow in the North

This short article discusses the Northern response to black migration into Northern communities after Reconstruction.

The Advent of Jim Crow

"During the years that followed, and especially after 1890, state governments in the South adopted segregationist laws mandating separation of the races in nearly every aspect of everyday life. They required separate public schools, railroad cars, and public libraries; separate water fountains, restaurants, and hotels. The system became known informally as 'Jim Crow,' from the 1828 minstrel show song 'Jump Jim Crow,' which was typically performed by white performers in blackface as a caricature of the unlettered, inferior black man." (Free at Last: The U.S. Civil Rights Movement) The Jim Crow laws and Supreme Court decisions on the laws are reviewed.

The Sad Story of How 'Separate but Equal' Was Born

The 1896 United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson firmly established the "separate-but-equal" policy that the South would follow for the next half-century. Examined are the details of the case, the unique mix of cultures and colors that characterized New Orleans, where the case originated, and the city's history of liberal civil rights policies. A larger overview of the South discusses how political wheeling and dealing eroded black civil rights and abetted segregation, reversing the gains achieved during Reconstruction and placing power almost exclusively in the hands of white supremacists.

Primary Sources

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Gettysburg Address (1863)

13th Amendment to the Constitution (1865)

Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address (1865)

Robert W. Flournoy to Thaddeus Stevens, 20 November 1865 (site under construction 11/17)

Thompson Powell to Thaddeus Stevens, 22 February 1866 (site under construction 11/17)

Treaty with Russia for the Purchase of Alaska (1867)

14th Amendment to the Constitution (1868)

15th Amendment to the Constitution (1870)

Addresses as Annual Meeting: President Hayes' Address

Inaugural Address of Rutherford B. Hayes, Monday, March 5, 1877

Thaddeus Stevens Attacks Presidential Reconstruction (this is a document which downloads and is inclusive of the primary source along with analysis)

Thaddeus Stevens speech of December 18 1865

Letters and Diaries

Freedmen's Bureau

Newspapers (To view articles within African Americans/Race Relations section, link into the RED circles)

Census

Forty Acres and a Mule

Additional Resources

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9th Grade Social Studies Summer Reading Packet

9th grade Social Studies Summer Reading.docx

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