Previous research literature highlights students’ difficulties with gaining a conceptual understanding of the electronic structure of the atom. The concepts of energy quantization and electron probability have been proposed as threshold concepts in order for students to be able to develop a more expert-like concept of the electronic structure of the atom. We have conducted semi-structured interviews with both general chemistry and physical chemistry students using multiple representations of atomic orbitals and an energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom. The data from the interviews were analyzed to identify students’ incorrect ideas of the atom with regards to quantization and probability. We used this data to design the Quantization and Probability Representations Inventory (QuPRI) to measure students’ thinking about the electronic structure of the atom in both general chemistry and physical chemistry courses. Data was collected with the QuPRI in both general chemistry and physical chemistry students. A manuscript was published in Chemistry Education Research and Practice describing student interpretations of the representations, and a manuscript reporting the development of the QuPRI was published in the Journal of Chemical Education.  A manuscript describing students’ probabilitistic reasoning using a framework developed in mathematics education research is in revision..

In collaboration with the Page group, a guided-inquiry activity was developed to introduce students to the concept of protein-protein interactions by exploring primary and tertiary structures of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and Protein A through the molecular visualization software PyMOL. Students use the visualization software to identify different types of non-covalent interactions both between and within the proteins at physiological pH. A sound understanding of non-covalent interactions is crucial in students’ learning of many biochemical processes including the folding of proteins, recognition of substrates by enzymes, and protein-protein interactions. Students are asked to analyze association kinetics data and explain how changes in pH affect non-covalent interactions. The laboratory activity was designed for one semester biochemistry laboratory course taken by students majoring in allied health disciplines, engineering, and biology. Several extensions were also design to make the experiment more suitable for a chemistry and biochemistry majors’ laboratory course. A manuscript was published in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education.