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Supermoon Illuminates the Sky for the Last Time in 2024
Gazing up: Americans continue their obsession with outer space, the moon and stars
By: Russell Collins
On Nov. 15 at 4.29 p.m. EST, a Supermoon was observed at its peak. This Supermoon is known as the Beaver Full Moon, and is the last of 2024’s series of Supermoons. There will not be another Supermoon until late 2025. According to the Old Farmer’s Almanac, the November Supermoon was named “Beaver” because it occurred during the time when beavers start sheltering in their lodges after preparing for the winter. Some other names for the Beaver Moon are the Frost, Frosty Moon, or the Snow Moon. Around 96% of the Moon’s nearside was illuminated by the sun on Thursday, November 14th. By Friday, 100% of the Moon’s near side was illuminated, according to NASA.
It should come as no surprise that the names of the Supermoons are used to track the seasons. Starting in the 1930s, the Farmer’s Almanac began to publish Native Americans and Colonial American names for full moons. Over time, these names have become more and more prevalent. The term “Supermoon” was coined in 1979 and occurs when a full moon is in its closest approach to Earth. The Moon does not orbit in a perfect circle; it actually orbits in an ellipse (an oval) around the Earth.
This oval shape brings the Moon closer and farther away from the Earth as it travels in its orbit. The farthest point in the orbit is called the apogee, which is approximately 253,000 miles from Earth. Its closest point is the perigee, which is about 226,000 miles from Earth. Full moons can happen at any point along the Moon’s orbit, but when a full moon occurs near or at the perigee, it looks slightly larger by 6.2% and 12.8% brighter. This increase in size and brightness is what inspired the term “Supermoon.”
According to a NASA research scientist, Dennis Gallgher, Supermoons are not rare and occur as a regular part of the Moon’s orbit of Earth. According to Gallagher, “The Moon’s orbit takes it around the Earth about once every 27 and one-third days. That time of closest approach to Earth, or perigee, happens three or four times each year due to the motions of Earth and the Moon around the Sun.”
Scientists predict that the next Supermoon will fall on November 5th, 2025.
Skeleton Renewal: How Do Our Bones Amazingly Regenerate Every Ten Years?
Does bone regeneration pose new quesions about increased longevity and a new lease on life?
By Rachel Sajan
The human body is in a constant state of renewal, and one of the most remarkable examples of this is the process by which bones regenerate approximately every ten years. This phenomenon, known as bone remodeling, ensures that the skeleton remains strong, adaptable, and capable of repairing damage throughout a person’s life. Bone remodeling is not just about replacing old bone with new; it is an intricate and highly regulated process driven by cellular activity, nutrient availability, and physical demands on the body.
At the heart of bone remodeling there are two specialized types of cells: osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are responsible for breaking down old or damaged bone tissue during a process called bone resorption. These cells dissolve the mineralized matrix of bone, releasing stored calcium and other minerals into the bloodstream. This step is crucial not only for clearing out bone that is no longer functional, but also for maintaining calcium balance in the body. Calcium is essential for many biological processes, including muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and blood clotting.
Once osteoclasts complete their work, osteoblasts take over. These cells build new bone by producing a collagen-rich matrix that serves as a scaffold. Over time, this matrix becomes mineralized with calcium and phosphate, forming strong and dense bone tissue. This balance between bone resorption and bone formation is tightly regulated to maintain skeletal integrity and prevent either excessive bone loss or abnormal bone growth.
The entire human skeleton undergoes this renewal process over roughly a ten-year period, though the rate of remodeling varies depending on the bone and the individual’s age and health. Some bones, such as those in the legs and arms, remodel more quickly due to the mechanical stress they endure from activities like walking and lifting. Other bones, such as those in the spine, may renew more slowly. This continuous turnover ensures that micro-damage from everyday activities, such as walking or running, does not accumulate and lead to fractures or structural weakness.
The phenomenon of bone remodeling is influenced by a variety of factors, including diet, physical activity, hormones, and age. Calcium and vitamin D are particularly critical, as they stand as the building blocks for bone mineralization. Without adequate levels of these nutrients, the body may struggle to maintain the balance between resorption and formation, leading to weakened bones over time. Physical activity, especially weight-bearing exercises, plays a key role by stimulating osteoblast activity and promoting bone density. The mechanical stress from activities like walking, running, or lifting signals the body to reinforce the bones that bear the load, effectively making them stronger in response to demand.
Hormones also play a significant role in regulating bone remodeling. Estrogen, for example, helps maintain the balance between bone resorption and formation. This is why bone density often declines in women after menopause, as decreased estrogen levels lead to increased osteoclast activity and accelerated bone loss. Similarly, testosterone in men supports bone health by stimulating bone formation.
As we age, the efficiency of bone remodeling begins to decline. The activity of osteoclasts may outpace that of osteoblasts, leading to gradual bone loss. This imbalance can result in conditions like osteoporosis, where bones become porous, fragile, and more prone to fractures. While this process is a natural part of aging, lifestyle choices can significantly influence the rate and extent of bone loss.
Understanding the process of bone regeneration highlights the body’s remarkable ability to maintain itself. It also underscores the importance of supporting bone health through proper nutrition, regular physical activity, and lifestyle choices that promote overall well-being. By ensuring that your body has the nutrients, stimuli, and conditions it needs, you can help maintain strong, resilient bones throughout your life, allowing this incredible process of regeneration to continue working in your favor.
World’s Largest Coral Reef was Discovered in the South Pacific
Now how can we keep from destroying it as we do so many other natural wonders?
By: Emerson Rooney
Scientists have been searching for and discovering new coral reefs for years. Coral reefs are known to have been around for over 500 million years when they were found in old fossil reefs. Today, coral reefs are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old.
Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems that are made up of reef-building corals. They are scientifically considered animals and eat both plankton and small fish. There are hundreds of different species of coral reefs, but this past year, an amazing discovery was made by intelligent, dedicated scientists.
A 300-year coral reef was found in the Solomon Islands and scientists claimed that this is the world’s largest coral reef. The newly discovered coral reef was measured to be 112 feet by 105 feet. To better understand these measurements, this large coral reef can be seen from space.
The team of scientists claim that the coral reef is bigger than a blue whale. Manu San Felix, a scientist involved with the discovery of this great coral reef, says, “Seeing the coral, which is in the Solomon Islands, was like seeing a ‘cathedral underwater.’”
Felix reports that he went diving to look for a shipwreck, which a map claimed was pinpointed there, but he saw something else. This was the moment when Felix made one of the most incredible discoveries ever, involving the discovery of both coral reefs and underwater animals.
It is clear that many 0f the scientists were amazed by their own discovery and felt amazed to see this coral reef in real life. The scientists also claim that the coral reef was found in good health. On the other hand, they claim that it was affected by climate change. This coral reef, along with many others, are facing challenges as the ocean continues to warm.
Positively, according to Georgia Rannard, a climate reporter, this coral reef was found in deeper waters, which most likely protected it from the higher temperatures on the seas’ surface. This coral reef changes a perspective for many viewers and scientists as to what else the underwater world can hold, and truly how large coral reefs may be.
Diabetes Numbers Increase At An Alarming Rate and Reach an All-Time High
What is causing this phenomenon and how do we control it; is diet and excercise key?
By: James Sagnella
Over the past few decades, the rates of diabetes in the world have increased drastically from what they used to be. From 1980 to 2014, the number of adults with diabetes in the world has increased from 108 million to 422 million. This is an astonishing rise, and should shock us all. For those that don’t know, diabetes is a disease that is caused by high levels of blood glucose, or blood sugar and it can lead to many other dangerous and even deadly health complications.
Diabetes has multiple effects on the body, including blurred vision, fatigue, weight loss, and blood vessel damage. Now, experts are saying that lack of exercise and poor diet may be risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is different from type 1, and can be caused by a poor lifestyle.
Americans have a tendency to eat a lot of fast food, which is filled with unhealthy ingredients. One of the reasons why diabetes rates are so high in America is because fast food is so popular in this country.
PubMed writes in an article about obesity that “the accumulation of an excessive amount of body fat can cause type 2 diabetes, and the risk of type 2 diabetes increases linearly with an increase in body mass index.” It is clear when looking at what the experts have to say that diabetes is a huge risk for everyone. Especially nowadays, when sugar levels are skyrocketing in foods all around the world. As sugar and fat levels increase, rates of obesity are also increasing. These rates have a direct correlation to rates of diabetes.
Also, diabetes rates are becoming more and more prevalent among younger people, sometimes even children. 352,000 teenagers and children under 20 years old have diagnosed diabetes due to a study done in May 2024. Many experts believe that these increased levels have to do with a rise in the rates of obesity in children. As fast food becomes more and more popular, diabetes rates will continue to rise.
Many people don’t think about the food they are consuming. They believe that they will never have diabetes because they exercise, or think that they eat healthy. However, the food industry has created a space in which most people don’t actually know what they are eating. The average person now consumes 17 teaspoons of added sugar per day. That is around 71 grams of sugar every day, which is almost triple the recommended max.
We all need to be more careful about what we eat. Even though we may think we are eating healthy, with the food industry the way it is, we are all at a higher risk now for diabetes than our parents, or their parents were. We all need to make sure we pay careful attention to the foods we eat, and even more careful attention to what is in those foods.
Americans must take a serious look at this astounding trend and anticipate how it will impact the future quality and length of their lives. Put the donut down now please.
Beware of Another Nationwide E. Coli Outbreak: Can Carrots be the Culprit?
By: Zayna Saidi
This past November, the company Grimmway Farms, located in Bakersfield, California, was forced into recalling a harvest of their organic carrots due to them containing a harmful type, scientifically known as a strain, of Escherichia coli. Later into the month, on November 21, reports of infection spread throughout the country, resulting in the company having to expand their recall to any item possibly affected by this bacteria.
Escherichia coli, more commonly referred to as E. coli, a group of bacteria that mainly infects the gut and urinary tract, is not always harmful. However, when it is a Shiga toxin-producing strain of E. coli, it has a high probability of leading to severe illness. Otherwise, E. coli normally lives in the gut and should not be of concern.
Continuing their research on the infected carrots, the FDA took samples of the area where the infected carrots came from to test for the harmful strain of E. coli. Although the areas did come back as positive for containing Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, the researchers were surprised to find that the strain they found was not the same type as they saw in the affected citizens. Despite this confusing discovery, the FDA assured that the carrots were, in fact, the causing distributor of this outbreak.
Since the first reports of the outbreak, the CDC tracked all those who were infected by the carrots. On December 18, the CDC released an official reporting of all affected individuals. In total, 49 people from 19 states were diagnosed with E. coli links back to the same carrots. Of these 49 people, 20 had the need for hospitalization, one developed into hemolytic uremic syndrome, and one death. The states that were most affected by this outbreak were California, Washington, Minnesota, and New York. Other affected states were Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, Missouri, Arizona, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, and Massachusetts.
E. coli can be transmitted through multiple ways, with the most common being through consumption of contaminated food or contact with contaminated objects. Symptoms of E. coli consist of a low fever, loss of appetite, nausea, stomach pains, and more. Different strains of E. coli can result in different things, such as no illness, a mild illness, and, in strains such as the Shiga toxin producing type, likely results in a serious illness as it greatly affects the kidneys.
Due to the quick response to this E. coli outbreak from the CDC, FDA, and Grimmway Farms, the number of citizens affected remained a minimal number. With the infected and possibly infected items fast removal from all store shelves, the CDC has been able to confirm that the investigation on the matter is now closed. Furthermore, they have stated that the concern for infection is over, as all items at this time are past their shelf life.
Lunar Rock Samples Shock Researchers
Lessons the earth continues to teach us...if we're ready to listen
By: Haram Lee
Collected during China's Chang'e-6 mission, lunar rock samples retrieved from the far side and less-explored region of the moon have unveiled surprising evidence of volcanic activity that occurred much later than previously thought. The samples were collected between June 1 and June 3, 2024, using a robotic arm and included around 1.9 kilograms of rock material, specifically from the South Pole-Aitken basin, a region known for its immense crater and geological significance.
Published on November 15, 2024, by researchers in renowned journals, the analysis indicates that these rocks, primarily basalt, date back approximately 2.8 billion years, which was found through radiometric dating techniques. The study revealed that the magma cooling that formed the basalt occurred more recently than anticipated. These findings challenge existing theories that suggested lunar volcanism had occurred much earlier. At the same time, prior studies of samples from the moon's near side had indicated that volcanic activity had primarily ended over three billion years ago, leaving a gap in our understanding of the moon's geological history. However, data from the Chang'e-6 samples suggests that the far side experienced significant volcanic events, possibly extending into a later geological period.
Geochemist Qiu-Li Li from the Chinese Academy of Sciences noted that the initial findings provide differences between the moon's two hemispheres, known for their contrasting topographies and chemical compositions. The far side, which is permanently facing away from Earth, is characterized by a thicker crust and fewer large volcanic plains compared to the near side, which has extensive mare basalts. According to the research, both formed samples indicate volcanic activity, but surprisingly, they lack the radioactive elements like potassium and rare earth elements typically found in other lunar samples collected from the near side. This absence of elements known collectively as KREEP—an acronym for Potassium, Rare Earth Elements, and Phosphorus—poses new questions about the lunar far side's thermal history and volcanic processes.
This asymmetry in volcanic history is a longstanding question in lunar science. Not only that, but one particular piece dated back to 4.2 billion years suggests an extended period of volcanism, challenging previous theories that the moon's volcanism was a brief phenomenon early in its history, further adding to the mystery.
The volcanic activity inferred from these samples indicates that the moon's far side may have remained geologically active far longer than historically proposed, which may alter our approach to studying lunar geology and evolution. Clive Neal, a professor at the University of Notre Dame and one of the study's co-authors, expressed surprise over the samples' young age and unusual composition, raising critical questions about how and why such magmas were generated under the unique conditions of the moon's far side.
As an international collaboration is underway, scientists outside of China are optimistic about future research opportunities, as data from the Chang'e-6 mission continues to be accessible for study. The global community eagerly awaits further discoveries that may provide deeper insights into the moon's volcanic history and internal processes.
MIT Studies New Advancements in Climate Change, Prevention, and Control
By: Sally Liao
Because of climate change’s looming threat to our world, engineers worldwide have been working on removing greenhouse gas emissions that threaten our environment by turning them into fuel. The greenhouse gas, most in effect, carbon dioxide, can easily be turned into fuel, but engineers have struggled for years to extract the most out of the carbon dioxide. This is what the engineers at MIT have been working on earlier this November, and they have seen success in converting carbon dioxide into valuable chemical fuels and products that could possibly be scalable and used in the future in the fight against this increasingly global problem.
The MIT group includes mechanical engineering professor Kripa Varanasi, MIT doctoral student Simon Rufer, graduate student Michael Nitzsche, Sanjay Garimella, and Jack Lake, PhD ‘23. Together, their results were published in the journal Nature Communications. The main goal for these MIT engineers was to turn as much of the carbon dioxide into ethylene, a gas used for making plastic, and fuels for manufacturing, typically made from petroleum. However, with their developed process, they also created other fuel sources such as methanol, methane, and carbon monoxide, but ethylene was the MIT engineers’ focus for its versatility. With this goal set, all the MIT engineers had to do was develop a way to most cost-effectively convert carbon dioxide into as much ethylene as possible.
A catalyst material and a water-based electrolyte solution are needed to convert carbon dioxide into ethylene. These come into contact, followed by an electric current, which takes place in a gas diffusion electrode. This device holds the reactions that end up converting to electrical energy. The materials that make up the gas diffusion electrode also play a role in the whole process, having to be both good electric conductors to ensure no energy is wasted and water repelling so that the water-based solution does not leak and interfere with electrode surface reactions. However, having both of these characteristics is an exchange. Increasing hydrophobicity reduces how well the electricity conducts, while vice versa is also true. This was the MIT engineers’ big challenge.
After months of trial and error, the team came to their findings. They used a plastic material with great hydrophobicity, PTFE or Teflon, along with copper wires that were woven through thin PTFE sheets. The copper’s efficient electric conductivity and PTFE’s hydrophobic properties allowed for maximum energy conversion, allowing electrons to travel through without wasting so much voltage.
Varanasi says, “This work really addressed this challenge, as we can now get both conductivity and hydrophobicity.”
After getting their basic process down, the team started testing the scalability of their process.
As this goes on, engineers at MIT and around the world are researching and discovering more to stop Climate Change. With all the attempts made prior, the MIT team has come a long way.
The Urgent Threat of Rising Sea Levels
How long will we keep our beautiful coastlines?
By: Tessa Grillo
Rising sea levels represent one of the most pressing challenges of our time, driven primarily by climate change and the accelerated melting of polar ice caps. This phenomenon poses significant threats to coastal communities, ecosystems, and global economies. As global temperatures continue to rise, glaciers and ice sheets are experiencing unprecedented rates of melting. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global sea levels have risen approximately eight to nine inches (20 to 23 centimeters) since 1880. Projections suggest that by the end of the century, sea levels could rise between one to four feet, depending on future greenhouse gas emissions and climate policies.
A critical factor contributing to this rise is the alarming rate of ice loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Research indicates that between 1992 and 2012, Greenland lost around 3,500 billion tons of ice, while Antarctica lost approximately 2,720 billion tons. This significant loss of ice mass is projected to account for nearly one-third of future sea-level rise. The implications of these changes are profound, as rising sea levels threaten to inundate coastal areas, disrupt ecosystems, and displace millions of people.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reports that nearly 40% of the U.S. population resides in coastal regions, making them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of rising sea levels. Cities like Miami, New Orleans, and New York are already grappling with increased flooding during high tides, and projections indicate that by 2050, many coastal areas could experience heightened flooding events. This not only poses risks to the city's land and property, but also threatens local economies reliant on tourism, fishing, and other coastal industries.
Rising sea levels have had a huge impact both on the environment and human populations, and will continue to do so if action is not taken. The ocean level increase has forced many communities, especially in low-lying coastal areas, to relocate, and increased flooding has led to the destruction of homes and infrastructure. Ecosystems like mangroves, salt marshes, and coral reefs are disappearing, which is unfortunate for the species that rely on them. These species include the salt marsh sparrow, which is now at risk of extinction. Economically, the damage is massive, with billions of dollars lost in property damage, agriculture affected by saltwater intrusion, and coastal tourism suffering due to beach erosion. Health wise, rising sea levels can contaminate freshwater supplies, leading to health issues, and can influence the spread of diseases like malaria and dengue fever.
Rising sea levels have also been known to intensify storms, making hurricanes, such as the recent one in Florida, even more destructive. This escalating effect of the sea levels led to over $34 billion in damages in the U.S. and at least 35 people dead. Hurricane Milton, the most recent storm in Florida, would not have been as severe if sea levels were not so high, causing extensive flooding and many fatalities.
Rising sea levels are a pressing issue that is being driven by climate change and the melting of ice caps. With statistics showing significant ice loss and projections indicating further rises, the need for proactive measures to mediate climate change and protect vulnerable coastal communities is more urgent than ever.
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