Science 

Scientists Discover Milky Way-like Galaxies in the Early Universe

By: Nina Novicki

In September of this year, a group of astronomers from the University of Manchester published their discovery of an abundance of galaxies shaped like the Milky Way throughout the universe. For this study, the scientists used the James Webb Space Telescope due to its effectiveness at observing galaxies and deep space. The James Webb Telescope, also known as the JWST, was launched into space on December 25th, 2021 and now mainly observes infrared radiation, which allows for scientists to see beyond clouds of dust that would otherwise be obscured by visible light. 

The Milky Way galaxy, home to Earth, is what astronomers call disk-shaped. Disk galaxies are thin and spiraled, rotating around a center. The Milky Way galaxy is a subspecies of disk galaxies called a barred spiral galaxy. Barred spiral galaxies are characterized by the presence of spiral arms as well as “ribbons” of stars that create a line across the center of the galaxy. Additionally, spiral galaxies are enclosed with dark matter. Despite being invisible, dark matter has a gravitational pull that attracts nearby objects.

Astronomers hypothesize that spiral disk galaxies are formed by a collision between two galaxies of similar sizes. Dark matter, mentioned previously, is a large factor in the attraction of nearby galaxies to each other. In fact, the Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda galaxy are currently traveling towards each other, being predicted to collide with one another several billion years into the future.

Previously, scientists believed that disk galaxies were not present during the early stages of the universe after the Big Bang, which occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago. This is because the period had countless violent collisions between neighboring galaxies, conditions that were thought to be too hostile to support the more fragile disk structures. However, some scientists studied a relatively large data sample of around 4,000 galaxies and concluded that disk shapes were found just 3.7 billion years after the Big Bang. In contrast, previous research using the Hubble Telescope did not note the presence of disk galaxies until 6 billion years after the Big Bang. Not only was it discovered that some disk galaxies are older than scientists thought, they are also far more common within the universe than previously anticipated. 

The greater purpose of scientists having a solid understanding of the formation of individual galaxies is the subsequent knowledge of the structure of the universe as a whole, both past and present.

A different team of scientists used the James Webb Space Telescope and made equally groundbreaking astronomical discoveries. They found that the galaxies that existed when the universe was very young broke many rules that govern galaxies in today’s age. For example, the galaxies formed when the universe was mere millions years old contained far less heavy metallic elements than hypothesized. The near-constant trend of chemical composition in relation to star birth only traced back to around 12 billion years ago, leaving an approximate 1.7 billion years unaccounted for. 

The James Webb Space Telescope is a powerful scientific instrument that has created opportunities for scientists around the world to already make many astronomical discoveries in just the two years that it has been active.

El Nino Predicts the Upcoming Winter Season

By: Nina Novicki

For the first time in four years, El Nino will likely result in winter temperatures above average for the Northern United States. According to the National Weather Service, El Nino is a term used to describe the climate phenomenon in which a region in the east coast of South America experiences notable warming of the Pacific Ocean. Conversely, La Nina describes the cooling of the Pacific, which frequently leads to harsher winters. While a slight warming or cooling is observable every year, the temperature change is only drastic every 2-7 years, including this current year.

El Nino and La Nina are a part of a bigger phenomenon known as El Nino-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. Since 2020, the planet has been in a La Nina state until spring of this year, where a brief period of neutrality occurred which will be followed by a warm period this winter. 

An issue with El Nino is that Earth is already in a state of elevated temperature due to global warming. In recent decades, there has been an unprecedented emission of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and others. An increased presence of these gasses contributes to the greenhouse effect, where the gas trapped in Earth’s atmosphere absorbs and traps heat from the sun. Consequently, during this winter warmer temperatures caused by El Nino will be layered on top of the effects of climate change. The last strong El Nino state was from 2015-2016, but climate change has only progressed since then. 

One way that meteorologists know if there is a state of El Nino or La Nina is simply by observing the Nino 3.4 region in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. According to the Oceanic Nino Index (ONI), if the water temperatures in that region are at least one half degree Celsius warmer than usual, it indicates a state of El Nino, whereas a half or more degrees colder indicates La Nina. The higher the deviation in temperature from the standard, the more severe the effects of the El Nino or La Nina state will be across the world. 

Within the United States, the region of New England has one of the highest likelihoods for warmer temperatures along with drier conditions. However, the impacts of El Nino vary greatly from region to region. While parts of Northern South America will experience increased rainfall and floods this year, Australia and Indonesia will have droughts.

The El Nino cycle also hinders the process of upwelling, which is when warmer waters move west and elevate cooler water near the coasts of countries such as Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. Upwelling distributes more nutrients to help marine life thrive, which is especially important considering the locals rely heavily on the fishing industry. The nutrients provided by upwelling travel up the food chain, beginning from the phytoplankton that use the nitrates and phosphates to aid with photosynthesis and ending with the humans who buy, consume, or sell fish from that area. Therefore, a state of El Nino will negatively impact marine life in Ecuador, Peru, and Chile as well as the locals who depend on it. 

Needless to say, regardless of what part of the globe a country is in, it will be negatively affected in some way by this year's predicted El Nino cycle. As for the Northern United States, prepare for a warmer, drier winter than anticipated.

Scientists Attempt to Save Coral Reefs Through the use of IVF

By: Zayna Saidi

Scientists of today have concluded that since the year of 1950, the world has lost nearly half of its coral reefs. Now, many professionals are concerned that if the current rate of which the coral reef is declining continues, coral reefs could disappear by the year 2043.

To produce new life across their reef, corals release reproductive cells annually. Yet, due to human influence on their environment, resulting in higher temperatures and harsh chemicals in the water, the coral is being affected by a disease known as the white plague, causing the reef to be damaged faster than it is able to repair itself. 

This disease was first discovered in the Florida Keys during the year 1977, and now scientists are concerned about what this disease could mean for the future of coral reefs. Due to how slowly the corals grow, they are more vulnerable to becoming extinct. Every year the reef only grows at a rate of 2 centimeters, so the white plague is capable of killing hundreds of corals before they are able to reproduce to make up for what they have lost. 

In addition to their slow growth rate, corals are now experiencing a process known as bleaching, which makes them more susceptible to catching diseases. Coral bleaching is primarily caused by climate change, due to it warming the ocean temperatures. The rise in water temperatures causes the algae that live on the corals to be released from the coral’s tissue, removing the natural protection that they are given from bacteria.

In hopes to prevent the complete destruction of the coral reef, scientists have turned to experimenting with In Vitro Fertilization, more commonly known as IVF, to aid coral reproduction. On August 9, a group of scientists from the Florida Aquarium hired a team of divers to gather eggs from the coral. With the eggs, scientists used IVF to fertilize them, where they would then let the eggs mature before releasing them back into the reef where they could attach and grow. With this new method, scientists hope to repopulate the reef faster than the white plague is able to destroy it. With this method, it has been discovered that the IVF fertilized eggs are able to reproduce at a quicker rate, allowing the coral to repopulate itself faster than it can be destroyed.

Prior to the use of IVF, scientists had run multiple other experiments in an attempt to find the most effective way at preserving the coral. Some methods included training the coral to withstand high temperature and acidic waters. Other methods attempted to alter the algae living on the corals to make it act as heat-resistance for the coral, protecting it from bleaching or diseases. However, the method of reviving coral reefs through using IVF is now a technique used throughout the globe, quickly becoming the most efficient and effective method to the salvation of coral reefs

Recent reports state that the IVF fertilized coral is thriving in their current conditions, with lead researcher Peter Harrison stating, “This proves that the larvae restoration technique works just as we predicted and we can grow very large corals from tiny microscopic larvae within just a few years,” The results from this experiment is showing that coral reefs now have a promising future.