Embedded Files
Instructions
Instructions
Use the drop-down arrows below to explore each type of source. Every drop-down includes a screenshot of that type of source -- click on it to be taken to the full text.
Once you're done reviewing each type of source, take the quiz at the bottom to test your knowledge!
Primary Research
Primary Research
Research Articles
Research Articles
What are they?
Primary research articles report on new findings. They're published in journals after going through a peer-review process, where other experts in the field evaluate the article's quality.
They may also be called "empirical research articles" or "experimental research articles".
How do you identify them?
Look for the title of the source -- it should be from a journal. If in doubt, look up the journal title on Google and confirm.
To determine if it's primary or secondary, look for a methods and results section. Since primary research articles involve an experiment, they'll always have sections describing how they carried out that experiment.
Why would you want to use them?
They're often the best source of quality information for current research topics.
They're often narrow in scope, which means they take a deep dive into a niche area. If you find that there's a lot of unfamiliar jargon, don't be afraid to google!
Are they peer reviewed?
Yes!
Conference Materials
Conference Materials
What are they?
Conference materials, also called "conference proceedings" or "proceedings papers", are a collection of the papers & posters presented at a conference.
How do you identify them?
They often look similar to research articles. Look for the source -- does it come from a journal, or does it come from something with "conference" or "proceeding" in the name?
Why would you want to use them?
Conferences are sometimes the first place that researchers talk about a new study. If you're working on a cutting edge topic, you may find more conference materials than peer-reviewed articles.
Conference materials are typically considered scholarly & reputable sources.
Are they peer reviewed?
It depends on the conference! You can always look at the conference website for more information.
Patents
Patents
What are they?
A patent is the document that you file when you want to protect your design or invention from being made, used, or sold by others.
They contain a lot of information describing the design in text form, as well as diagrams.
Just because something is patented doesn't mean that it was ever made or was a viable product -- patents simply protect intellectual property.
How do you identify them?
They will be clearly labeled as "Patent" at the top of the first page. We mostly provide access to US Patents, but you may also encounter international patents that look a little different.
Why would you want to use them?
Every patent application has to include a "prior art search", where the literature has been searched for similar designs. You can use that to find links to other sources or to get background knowledge on the design.
Patents include diagrams and detailed descriptions of inventions, meaning that they can be a great source of inspiration for your own research or designs.
Are they peer reviewed?
They're not peer reviewed, but they're closely evaluated by the US Patent office before they're granted, meaning that they're reputable sources of information.
Gray Literature
Gray Literature
What are they?
Gray literature are documents that detail the findings of a research project, program or initiative, or simply take a deep dive into a particular topic area. They don't fit neatly into traditional definitions of source types, which is why they've been given the name "gray" -- identifying them is not black & white.
Gray literature isn't found in a journal. They're put out by government, non-profit, private, educational, or research organizations.
You'll sometimes see these referred to as "reports", although this type of report isn't peer-reviewed.
How do you identify them?
Gray literature will sometimes be labeled as a "report" on their title page, but as can be seen in the example below, the title may also be a description of the content.
They usually don't include citation information such as volume or issue number -- they aren't published in books or journals, they may or may not have a DOI, sometimes even author names are left out. If it's put out by a specific organization, it's likely considered a report / gray literature.
Why would you want to use them?
Gray literature is rich with information, particularly if you're interested in the work of a particular organization.
They tend to be broad in scope and more accessible than a journal article or conference proceeding, because the audience is usually the general public.
They are well-researched, and you can follow their citations to find more information on your topic.
Are they peer reviewed?
No. Whether or not they're considered a reputable source depends on the organization and author that published them.
Research Letters
Research Letters
What are they?
Research letters are like abbreviated versions of journal articles -- they report on new findings but don't go into as much depth as a research article.
They're also known as "brief communications", "rapid communications", or "brief reports".
How do you identify them?
Research letters are much shorter than a standard journal article -- usually only a page or two.
If they're not plainly labeled as a "letter", you'll often find them in a section of the journal titled "Correspondence".
Why would you want to use them?
Research letters are like bite-sized journal articles. You would use them for the same purpose. They can be great sources of information for current research topics, although they're very narrow in scope.
Are they peer reviewed?
Yes!
Secondary Research
Secondary Research
Review Articles
Review Articles
What are they?
Secondary research articles, also known as "review articles", summarize all of the current research on a a topic. They're considered secondary because they're not doing any experimental work to derive new knowledge, but rather summarizing and synthesizing the research that's already been done.
How do you identify them?
Sometimes they'll have "review" in the title, but the abstract will tell you if the researchers did an experiment or not. If they didn't, and they instead examined the literature, it's a review article.
Why would you want to use them?
Review articles have a ton of helpful information in them, particularly if you can find one that's really relevant to your topic. You can get acquainted with a new area of research without having to survey the literature yourself!
Secondary research articles also have long bibliographies that could lead you to other good sources.
Are they peer reviewed?
Yes!
Theses & Dissertations
Theses & Dissertations
What are they?
Theses are the product of the master's degree program, and dissertations are the product of a doctoral degree program. Students are required to write a thesis or a dissertation in order to earn their degree.
They're often very long (sometimes book-length), and include a deep review of the literature on their topic, sometimes along with an original research project.
How do you identify them?
They'll lack the formatting of a journal article, looking more like a plain text document.
They'll have a cover page clearly stating that it's a thesis or dissertation.
Why would you want to use them?
Their length might be discouraging if you're using them as a source for your paper, but they have very well sourced bibliographies that can lead you to additional sources on your topic.
Don't be afraid to only use one section of the dissertation or thesis -- if there's a chapter that's particularly helpful, you can just read and cite that chapter.
Are they peer reviewed?
Not in the traditional sense, but they're reviewed by faculty in the degree program. Whether or not they're considered a reputable source may depend on how your professor feels about them. In general, it's better to use them as a way to find citations to more information rather than citing them directly.
Books & Book Chapters
Books & Book Chapters
What are they?
There are many different types of scholarly books: textbooks, reference books / encyclopedias, and edited books.
Edited books are often what you'll find in databases: They're like collections of essays, meaning that you can sometimes find & cite a chapter that's really relevant to your topic without feeling like you need to read the entire book.
How do you identify them?
Look up the title of the source and see if it has a landing page: Is it for a journal or for a book?
Why would you want to use them?
Encyclopedias and textbooks are great when you need background information for a topic -- for instance, if you were searching for the definition of a term to include in your writing and needed a source for it.
Edited books can be used like research articles. Individual chapters will take deep dives into a narrow topic.
Are they peer reviewed?
Not in the traditional sense, but they go through editorial oversight and are considered a reputable source.
Other
Other
White Papers
White Papers
What are they?
A white paper is a research report that covers an issue in-depth, and offers a solution or point-of-view.
White papers are typically published by government or business organizations. They're used to either persuade someone to take a position, recommend a policy, or as marketing tools for products / services.
How do you identify them?
Often you'll see "white paper" or "issues page" on the title page. You're more likely to find white papers on the open web than through a database.
White papers tend to be longer than a journal article, and often include an "executive summary" which summarized the main points.
Keep in mind that white papers take positions, so you'll usually see a particular solution, policy, or product recommended.
Why would you want to use them?
White papers are well-researched and provide thorough breakdowns of issues. Even if you don't cite the white paper directly, you can use it as a gateway to more information.
If you're researching potential solutions to a problem, white papers offer recommendations.
Are they peer reviewed?
They are not peer reviewed -- whether or not they're considered reputable depends more on the source that published the white paper.
Pre-Prints & Post-Prints
Pre-Prints & Post-Prints
What are they?
They're prior versions of research articles.
A pre-print is the version of a research article that's been submitted to a journal for publication. It hasn't yet been peer-reviewed.
A post-print is the version of a research article that's been submitted to a journal and has gone through the peer-review process.
How do you identify them?
They lack the official formatting of a journal article -- they might look like a word document or a plain PDF. There may or may not be a note on the title page that indicates it's a pre- or post-print.
They're starting to appear in library databases like Web of Science, and you can also find them on Google Scholar or in pre-print servers like Arxiv.
Why would you want to use them?
Often they're posted online as a way to give people free access to the article. If you're hitting a paywall, you might find that a pre-print or a post-print is available. (And remember you can always use Tripsaver to get access to paywalled articles!)
Are they peer reviewed?
Pre-prints are not peer-reviewed, post-prints are peer-reviewed. The degree to which they're considered a reputable source depends on the context -- for example, in the discipine of Physics it's very common to use pre-prints. In other disciplines, it may not be.
Editorials, Commentaries, & More
Editorials, Commentaries, & More
What are they?
There are other types of scientific and scholarly articles that don't fit neatly into the categories discussed. Some examples include:
Editorials: These are typically responses to previously published articles in the journal -- a critique, or a follow-up with new development.
Commentaries: Short articles that describe personal experiences and perspectives on a given topic. Often on "hot topics" and include brief literature reviews.
Essays: Found in humanities and social sciences journal, these present new ways of thinking about different issues or topics.
How do you identify them?
If the author is using personal pronouns or presenting an opinion, it's likely that the source is one of these other types of literature.
Make sure you look for the fine print -- is there a label somewhere on the article PDF, or on the article's homepage?
Why would you want to use them?
If they're relevant to your topic, they're considered a scholarly source -- but if you'll probably also want to pull in some research that doesn't take a stance or have a particular perspective on an issue.
Are they peer reviewed?
Although they go under editorial review, they're not typically peer-reviewed.
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