Advanced Information Literacy Skills for the Sciences & Applied Sciences

Lesson 8. Use AI tools to help with your research

Over the last few years, numerous types of AI (Artificial Intelligence) tools have been developed and some are specifically designed to help you find sources. These tools are rapidly increasing in number and constantly changing and adapting as AI technology improves. This makes it impossible to keep up with what's out there! Nevertheless, below you'll get a broad overview of these tools and you'll also learn about some of their limitations.

What AI tools are available?

To get an idea what sort of AI research tools are currently available you can ask Google for a list (see image below), then use the dropdown icon next to each tool to learn more about what it does. This list is AI generated and is unlikely to be comprehensive; it may also contain tools you wouldn't consider to be research tools, such as DALL-E, Character.ai, etc.

Image shows a Google search of: list of AI research tools. Among those listed are ChatGPT, Perplexity, Consensus, Semantic Scholar, CoPilot, etc.

Or, you can consult human-curated lists, such as those developed by librarians at academic libraries:

How can you use AI tools to help you with your research? Explore the options outlined below!

Use AI to help develop a research topic

You can ask chatbot tools such as ChatGPT, Gemini, CoPilot, etc. to help you brainstorm research topics or help you develop research questions or hypotheses.

Use AI to find synonyms for your keyword searches

In Lesson 6 you learned three steps for conducting effective searches:

Select the fewest, most essential keywords that represent your topic.
Then, gather synonyms for those keywords.
Finally, set up a Boolean search to incorporate all of your keywords and synonyms.

That lesson pointed out that you can ask chatbot tools such as ChatGPT, Gemini, CoPilot, etc. to help you with step 3, identifying synonyms. For example, suppose you wanted to find synonyms for biocrusts. Here is a prompt you might give to some chatbots to see what they come up with:

Please provide a thorough list of terms people have used over the years for "biocrusts" including different types of biocrusts such as algal crusts, etc.

And below you can see what those bots came up with!

ChatGPT

Biocrusts, short for biological soil crusts, refer to the thin layer of soil surface that is stabilized by living organisms, primarily microorganisms. These crusts play crucial roles in soil stability, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem functioning, especially in arid and semi-arid environments. Over the years, various terms have been used to describe biocrusts and their constituent types. Below is a thorough list of terms related to biocrusts, including different types of biocrusts such as algal, lichen, and moss crusts, among others.
General Terms for Biocrusts:

Biological Soil Crusts (BSCs) – The most common and widely accepted term for biocrusts.
Soil Crusts – A general term for any crust that forms on soil, which can include both biological and physical crusts.
Microbial Crusts – Refers to biocrusts dominated by microorganisms, especially bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Living Soil Crusts – Another term that emphasizes the biological activity in the crust.
Soil Biological Layers – This term emphasizes the layers formed by biotic processes at the soil surface.
Soil Biofilm – Although biofilms usually refer to bacterial aggregates in aquatic environments, it can be used for biocrusts dominated by microbial communities.
Cryptobiotic Crusts – Refers to crusts that are largely hidden from view due to their small size, especially those made up of microorganisms.

Types of Biocrusts Based on Dominant Organisms:

Lichen Crusts – Crusts dominated by lichens, which are symbiotic associations of fungi and algae or cyanobacteria.
Moss Crusts – Crusts dominated by moss species, often forming in more moist environments compared to other biocrust types.
Algal Crusts – Biocrusts primarily composed of algae (including cyanobacteria), often found in arid or semi-arid regions where they play an important role in stabilizing the soil surface.
Cyanobacterial Crusts – Crusts made up of cyanobacteria, which are a type of photosynthetic bacteria commonly found in desert biocrusts. Cyanobacteria are essential in nitrogen fixation.
Bacterial Crusts – Biocrusts formed primarily by bacteria. These crusts are often less visible but play vital roles in nutrient cycling.
Fungal Crusts – Crusts where fungi (such as mycorrhizal fungi) dominate the biological community, although this is less common compared to other types of biocrusts.

Specific Types and Forms of Biocrusts:

Cyanobacterial Biofilms – A specific term for biocrusts dominated by cyanobacteria that form slimy biofilms at the soil surface.
Lichen-Supported Crusts – Crusts that form from the association of lichens with other organisms like mosses or cyanobacteria.
Desert Crusts – A term often used to refer to biocrusts found in arid, desert environments, typically consisting of a mixture of cyanobacteria, mosses, and lichens.
Algal Mats – Algae-based biocrusts that can form thick, visible mats on soil surfaces, often in wetter or moist environments.
Crustose Lichens – A type of lichen that forms a crusty, tightly adhered layer to the substrate, often a significant component of biocrusts in arid regions.
Sphagnum Moss Crusts – Specifically refers to moss crusts composed primarily of Sphagnum moss, often found in peatlands or other damp environments.
Moss-Dominated Biocrusts – These biocrusts are formed primarily by mosses, which thrive in slightly more humid or temperate environments than other types.
Filamentous Algal Crusts – Crusts formed by filamentous algae (such as Nostoc or Scytonema) that are typically cyanobacteria, and are essential in soil stabilization in drylands.

Other Terms Related to Biocrust Functions or Structures:

Soil Bio-crusts – Similar to biological soil crusts, but the hyphenated form emphasizes the biological nature.
Soil Coatings – A more generalized term sometimes used in the context of crust formation, including both biological and mineral crusts.
Biotic Soil Crusts – A variant of biological soil crusts, emphasizing the biotic (living) components.
Microbial Soil Crusts – Similar to microbial crusts but could refer to both bacteria and fungi-based crusts.
Desert Biological Crusts – Crusts found specifically in desert environments, often including a mix of mosses, lichens, and cyanobacteria.
Phototrophic Crusts – Refers to biocrusts primarily dominated by photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria and algae.
Nitrifying Soil Crusts – Biocrusts where nitrogen-fixing organisms like cyanobacteria play a key role, contributing to nutrient cycling.
Microphytic Crusts – Another term that refers to crusts formed by microorganisms, particularly cyanobacteria and algae.

Terms Referring to Specific Biocrust Functions or Ecological Roles:

Nitrogen-Fixing Crusts – A term for biocrusts that include cyanobacteria or other nitrogen-fixing organisms that enhance soil fertility.
Water-Holding Crusts – Refers to the role of biocrusts in retaining water, which is essential for soil stabilization in dry areas.
Erosion-Resistant Crusts – Refers to the role of biocrusts in preventing soil erosion by binding soil particles together.
Soil Stabilizing Crusts – A term highlighting the role of biocrusts in maintaining soil structure and preventing degradation.
Hydraulic Crusts – A specific type of biocrust that helps in water retention and facilitates plant growth in arid regions.
Soil-Microbial Mats – A term used for biocrusts where microbial organisms, including bacteria and fungi, form mat-like structures.

Other Related Terms:

Crustal Microbiomes – Refers to the complex microbial communities within biocrusts, often highlighting their ecological role in nutrient cycling.
Biocrust Assemblages – Refers to the community of organisms that form biocrusts, including mosses, lichens, algae, and bacteria.
Soil Biota Crusts – This can refer to biocrusts that consist of a wide range of soil organisms, including both macro- and microorganisms.
Ecological Soil Crusts – A term used to emphasize the role of biocrusts in the broader ecosystem processes, such as nutrient cycling and habitat provision.

Conclusion:The terminology around biocrusts is varied and reflects the complexity and diversity of these systems. Biocrusts can be classified by the dominant organism (e.g., cyanobacteria, moss, lichen, or algae), their ecological functions (e.g., nitrogen-fixing or water-holding), or their geographic and environmental context (e.g., desert or temperate crusts). The diversity of terms highlights the importance of these crusts in various ecosystems, especially in arid regions where they help in soil stabilization, nutrient cycling, and overall ecosystem health.

Gemini

Biocrusts have been known by many names throughout history, reflecting their varied appearance and ecological roles. Here's a list of some common terms:
General Terms:

Biological Soil Crusts: This is the most widely used and accepted term, emphasizing the living organisms that form the crust and their association with the soil.
Cryptogamic Crusts: This term highlights the presence of cryptogams (organisms that lack true roots, stems, and leaves), such as lichens, mosses, and algae.
Soil Crusts: A more general term that encompasses both biological and non-biological crusts (formed by soil particles alone).

Terms for Specific Types:

Algal Crusts: Primarily composed of algae, often green, blue-green (cyanobacteria), or both.
- Cyanobacterial Crusts: Specifically dominated by cyanobacteria.
- Green Algal Crusts: Primarily composed of green algae.
Moss Crusts: Dominated by mosses.
Lichen Crusts: Primarily composed of lichens.
Mixed Crusts: A combination of different organisms, such as algae, lichens, and mosses.

Historical and Regional Terms:

Cryptogamic Cover: An older term emphasizing the presence of cryptogams.
Biological Soil Covers: Similar to "biological soil crusts."
Soil Biota: A broader term encompassing all living organisms within the soil, including those that form crusts.
Desert Pavement: Sometimes used to describe a type of crust dominated by lichens and mosses, although this term can also refer to a surface layer of closely packed pebbles.

Other Terms:

Microbiotic Crusts: Emphasizing the small size of the organisms involved.
Soil Surface Communities: A more ecological term that recognizes the complex interactions within the crust.

Copilot

Sure! Over the years, "biocrusts" have been referred to by several terms. Here's a comprehensive list:
General Terms for Biocrusts:

Biological soil crusts
Cryptobiotic soil
Cryptogamic soil
Microbiotic soil
Microphytic soil

Types of Biocrusts:

Algal Crusts: Dominated by algae, often cyanobacteria.
Lichen Crusts: Composed of lichens, which are symbiotic associations between fungi and algae or cyanobacteria.
Moss Crusts: Contain mosses, including both short annual and tall perennial mosses.
Fungal Crusts: Dominated by fungi, often in combination with other organisms.
Mixed Crusts: Contain a combination of algae, cyanobacteria, lichens, mosses, and fungi.

Biocrusts play crucial roles in ecosystems, such as carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation, and soil stabilization. They are particularly important in arid and semi-arid environments1.Does this cover what you were looking for, or is there a specific aspect you'd like to dive deeper into?

Use AI tools to build a Boolean search

You can ask AI chatbots such as ChatGPT, Gemini, CoPilot, etc. to help you build a Boolean search. There is of course, no guarantee the chatbot will do a good job of this, in fact, it might botch it so badly that the search will not work at all. However, these bots will probably get better at this task over time. Plus, if you are inexperienced building Boolean searches then the bot may do a better job than you could! At the very least it may give you ideas for how to build your search. For example, here is a prompt given to ChatGPT:

Please put together a Boolean search on biocrusts and soil moisture.

Here is what ChatGPT came up with:

"biological soil crusts" OR "biocrusts" OR "soil crusts" OR "biotic soil crusts" OR "microbial crusts" OR "cyanobacterial crusts" OR "lichen crusts" OR "moss crusts"

AND

"soil moisture" OR "moisture retention" OR "soil water" OR "water retention" OR "water availability" OR "soil hydration" OR "water content"

Not horrible, but also not great. A much better search would capture more variations of the word "biocrust" in both singular and plural forms and would look for more variations on the soil moisture theme by not restricting this concept to a phrase. Like this:

“soil crusts” OR biocrusts OR “microbial crusts” OR “cryptobiotic crusts” OR “cryptogamic crusts” OR “lichen crusts” OR “moss crusts” OR “cyanobacterial crusts” OR “cyanobacteria crusts” OR “bacterial crusts” OR “fungal crusts” OR “desert crusts” OR “algal crusts” OR “biological crusts” OR “phototrophic crusts” OR “microphytic crusts” OR “hydraulic crusts” OR “microbiotic crusts” OR “bryophyte crusts” OR “soil crust” OR biocrust OR “microbial crust” OR “cryptobiotic crust” OR “cryptogamic crust” OR “lichen crust” OR “moss crust” OR “cyanobacterial crust” OR “cyanobacteria crust” OR “bacterial crust” OR “fungal crust” OR “desert crust” OR “algal crust” OR “biological crust” OR “phototrophic crust” OR “microphytic crust” OR “hydraulic crust” OR “microbiotic crust” OR “bryophyte crust”

AND

soil

AND

moisture OR water OR hydration OR hydraulic OR hydro*

Use AI to find sources on your topic

Google Scholar is the best known AI tool for finding sources on a topic, however nowadays there are many more such tools, such as Consensus, Dimensions, Elicit, OpenRead, Research Rabbit, ScholarAU, Scholarcy, Scispace, Scite, and Semantic Scholar. Here are some pros and cons of using these tools:

Pros

One advantage of many AI tools (such as those listed above) is that they are free to use, however some require a fee if you want to use more advanced features.
Many of these tools can do citation chaining and related-articles searching. (See Lesson 6 for more information about these techniques.) However, in general Google Scholar seems to do a better job at these tasks.
If you are not interested in conducting a comprehensive search, but you just want to find a few relevant sources, many of these tools will suffice.

Cons

Most of these tools (except Dimensions) are subject to the notorious "black box" problem. What that means is that you don't really have any idea how your search is being processed. Thus, you'll never have any way of assessing whether the tool did a good job of finding relevant, comprehensive results. For example, many of these tools utilize natural language searching rather than keyword/Boolean searching. That means you enter a topic as a sentence and the database then tries to interpret your sentence, and retrieve sources based on its interpretation. So, you have no idea how well it interpreted your topic sentence, including which words it thought were most important, whether it looked for synonyms for those words, etc.
Most of these tools (except for Dimensions, SciSpace, and possibly one or two others) are subject to the "Matthew effect." That means the algorithms these tools use for retrieving sources are designed such that articles that are highly cited, or clicked on a lot, tend to be delivered further up in your results. That means they will be seen more, used more, and then weighted ever more highly, in an ever repeating cycle. Meanwhile, there could be really good articles out there that for some reason have not gotten a lot of cites and/or clicks, and for this reason they will get buried further and further in your results. The saying "The rich get richer and the poor get poorer" perfectly captures the problem with the Matthew effect.
For most of these tools, searches are not reproduceable by others. Many of these tools don't even provide a total number of results (except Dimensions) so you'd never know if you were getting the same results each time you conducted the same search. Also, the black box issue and the Matthew effect prevent searches from being reproduceable. This is a big problem if you are conducting a systematic review (see Lesson 3) where your search needs to be reproduceable by others.
Most of these tools have few or no features for searching in particular fields of a record, or refining results, sorting results, etc.

Use AI tools to save time.....maybe?

Many of the AI tools listed in the section above have features to help you save time; for example they will extract, summarize, and synthesize content from sources so you don't have to read sources in their entirety. Furthermore, for some you can pose a question and the tool will provide an answer that it has synthesized from various sources. How well these tools summarize content and answer questions is anyone's guess, so be careful. You may want to double check to make sure the AI tool got things right, which means the tool may not save you much time after all!

You are finished with Lesson 8. What's next?

Proceed to Lesson 9 to learn about saving and organizing your sources.

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