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"History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, but if faced with courage need not be lived again." ~Maya Angelou
Introductory ReadingIn A NutshellBetween April 1917 and November 1918, over two million Americans fought in the biggest and most costly war in European history to that date. Entering only at the tail end of four years of slaughter and horror, the United States helped turn the tide of the war in favor of the Allies, and brought America onto the international stage as a major military, financial, and industrial power. Though at times unpopular at home, America's involvement in World War I was successful from a military standpoint. World War I led to an increasingly large army and more power for the federal government. By the war's end, over 50,000 American soldiers lay dead on Flanders' Fields, with even more dead from the Influenza Pandemic. World War I marked the end of the old order in Europe. For the United States, it marked the beginning of the American Century.
World War I matters, today, for several reasons. World War I was one of the most deadly and horrible wars the world has ever seen. Between 1914 and 1918 more than 11 million soldiers died in the name of militarism, imperialism, and nationalism. In many ways, the modern world began in the trenches of the Western Front, and the United States rose from a quiet industrial power to world preeminence thanks to its role in the so-called "War to End all Wars."
When war broke out in July 1914, many people were relieved that the long-awaited showdown between Germany and her allies—the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires—against Britain, France, and Russia had finally come. The general sentiment was that the war would be over by Christmas. The reality was far different. After two months of old-fashioned mobile warfare involving cavalry and infantry battles, the fronts in both Eastern and Western Europe hardened into a stalemate with both sides hunkered down behind increasingly sophisticated trench systems, some of which can still be seen today lining the fields of Belgium and France. The carnage of trench warfare was incredible: on one single day, 1 July 1916, the British army suffered 58,000 casualties in the Battle of the Somme, all in a futile effort to capture just a few hundred yards of territory. An entire generation of European men died in the trenches. Farmers in northeastern France today still routinely dig up bombs, bones and other debris from the war.
World War I, though it has been called the "War to End All Wars," led directly to World War II and helped forge the international order we know today. Following the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire was divided into 'Protectorates' under the control of Britain and France. One of those was called Palestine; another was called Iraq. Many of the recent historical causes of war and strife in the Middle East can be traced back to two members of the British and French Foreign Offices (Sykes and Picot) who drew some lines on a map and came up with the modern Middle East.
World War I matters, today, for several reasons. World War I was one of the most deadly and horrible wars the world has ever seen. Between 1914 and 1918 more than 11 million soldiers died in the name of militarism, imperialism, and nationalism. In many ways, the modern world began in the trenches of the Western Front, and the United States rose from a quiet industrial power to world preeminence thanks to its role in the so-called "War to End all Wars."
When war broke out in July 1914, many people were relieved that the long-awaited showdown between Germany and her allies—the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires—against Britain, France, and Russia had finally come. The general sentiment was that the war would be over by Christmas. The reality was far different. After two months of old-fashioned mobile warfare involving cavalry and infantry battles, the fronts in both Eastern and Western Europe hardened into a stalemate with both sides hunkered down behind increasingly sophisticated trench systems, some of which can still be seen today lining the fields of Belgium and France. The carnage of trench warfare was incredible: on one single day, 1 July 1916, the British army suffered 58,000 casualties in the Battle of the Somme, all in a futile effort to capture just a few hundred yards of territory. An entire generation of European men died in the trenches. Farmers in northeastern France today still routinely dig up bombs, bones and other debris from the war.
World War I, though it has been called the "War to End All Wars," led directly to World War II and helped forge the international order we know today. Following the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire was divided into 'Protectorates' under the control of Britain and France. One of those was called Palestine; another was called Iraq. Many of the recent historical causes of war and strife in the Middle East can be traced back to two members of the British and French Foreign Offices (Sykes and Picot) who drew some lines on a map and came up with the modern Middle East.
Section 1: Causes of World War I
Section 1: Causes of World War I
When most Americans are asked “What caused World War I,” the frequently incorrect response is the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife by the Serbian terror organization known as the Black Hand. That one event is merely the spark that lit the powder keg that had already been growing in Europe. We can definitively point to four causes, three of which we can call “the ‘isms”: imperialism, militarism, nationalism, and the fourth is an alliance system. As you've learned recently, Imperialism was practiced world-wide. It was perfected by European countries, but there was a growing desire for imperialism in the United States. The act of imperialism, or one country taking over another country to build an empire, was a direct result of greed; the need for natural resources, power, and money. The map below gives you an idea of the power of Imperialism at the turn of the twentieth century.
The map to the left shows the presence of imperialism in the world around the turn of the 20th Century (1900). As you can see, the possession of people in multiple territories creates resources to fight for or over, as well as people who can be made to fight.
Image Source: The Map Shop.
Image Source: The Map Shop.
Nationalism is perhaps the toughest to grasp at times, because it is frequently confused with patriotism. Nationalists (also referred to as nativists) believe that their country should contain ethnic homogeneity (one ethnicity), and that other ethnic groups cannot possibly share the same pride or love of country, even if it is their country of birth. We have dabbled in the idea with various activities on immigration and Eugenics prior to our study in World War I to make it a bit easier to understand the idea. Militarism, or making your military bigger and better than other countries, drove various European economies from approximately 1890 to 1914. Using the industrial revolution to their advantage, countries poured resources into the mass production and stockpile of weapons. European countries were also experimenting with new technology, such as airplanes, tanks, and chemical warfare, all of which could be mass produced to kill as many people as deemed necessary.The only non-ism cause of World War I is a secret alliance system between countries. In the years leading to World War I, the British, French, and Germans had been secretly working to obtain as many allies as possible who agreed to provide military help in case of conflict, which included troops, money, and weapons. These alliances meant that an attack on one country was an attack on all countries in the alliance system. Within a month of the Archduke’s assassination, 60 countries were pulled into a “war to end all wars.”
If the Assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, did not cause WWI, what is the significance of it?
This event is about nationalism AND imperialism - two of the causes of World War I.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was expanding it's territory in Eastern Europe through imperialism. In this example, it is the Austro-Hungarian Empire telling Bosnians they are now Austro-Hungarian, and they have to live under the political, economic, social, religious, and military systems of the Empire rather than maintaining the ethnic, religious, and cultural connections Bosnians had to their country, as well as bordering countries (like Serbia). The Black Hand - a Serbian extremist group - felt this was wrong and took action on behalf of Bosnia, as well as to prevent the Empire from taking Serbia next.
As the tensions increased between Austria-Hungary and Serbia in the summer of 1914, Russia, Serbia's ally, sent troops to the border between Russia and Austria-Hungary. That mobilization set off Germany and Austria-Hungary's mobilization of troops, and by August 1914, Europe was at war.
Over There was the most popular American song used for World War I recruiting drives, bond rallies, and to pump up your Yankee Doodle spirit. The song was written by George M. Cohen.
Most Americans were not on board with going to war. In fact, we remained neutral until April 1917. We hadn't been directly threatened or attacked. Why send our youth to the trenches? There were other reasons for neutrality which will be discussed in class. However, there are four specific moments between August 1914 - February 1917 that pushed Americans closer to war:
- Germany invaded Belgium in 1914. With little to no military presence, civilians were helpless against the invasion. Thousands of unarmed Belgians were killed, and entire villages were destroyed.
- Germany was conducting unrestricted submarine warfare against Britain. This made it difficult for America to get supplies to our allies in Britain (even though we were neutral). It also made it difficult for passenger ships to travel without the threat of torpedo (foreshadowing to #3).
- The German U-Boat sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, killing 1,195 civilians, including 128 Americans.
- The discovery of the Zimmermann Telegram (which we will discuss in class).
Section 2: America Mobilizes for War
Section 2: America Mobilizes for War
The Government OrganizesBefore America's official entrance into war, the government was preparing, which meant the need for legislation, new government agencies, and allocation of money. For example, the National Defense Act (1916) gave money to the military to expand the size of the Army. In the same year, Congress also passed the Naval Construction Act to provide money to improve the quality of our Navy; to keep pace with the advanced British and German Navy.
War Industries BoardThe purpose of the War Industries Board was to coordinate the needs between the military and industry. The WIB discovered what the military needed, and then worked with businesses and industry to move raw materials, mass produce the product, and then transport to the military.The WIB also dealt directly with labor disputes. Labor was trying to meet high quotas in short amounts of time with a gradually decreasing workforce (people were leaving to serve). The government couldn't do anything about preventing strikes, but the WIB paid companies and workers more, recruited more women and African Americans, and were able to keep the focus on production.Controversy did follow the WIB after the war. Several of the business owners working with the WIB were making large profits off the sale of weapons to the government. In the 1930s, after years of investigation, the Nye Committee took those individuals to court for war profiteering.
War Industries BoardThe purpose of the War Industries Board was to coordinate the needs between the military and industry. The WIB discovered what the military needed, and then worked with businesses and industry to move raw materials, mass produce the product, and then transport to the military.The WIB also dealt directly with labor disputes. Labor was trying to meet high quotas in short amounts of time with a gradually decreasing workforce (people were leaving to serve). The government couldn't do anything about preventing strikes, but the WIB paid companies and workers more, recruited more women and African Americans, and were able to keep the focus on production.Controversy did follow the WIB after the war. Several of the business owners working with the WIB were making large profits off the sale of weapons to the government. In the 1930s, after years of investigation, the Nye Committee took those individuals to court for war profiteering.
"Teamwork Wins." Hibbard Kline. United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation. 1918. Source: Smithsonian National Museum of American History.
How Will We Raise an Army?The status of the U.S. military at this time is pretty much the same as every conflict we've discussed this far in our studies: little to none. We were still a conglomeration of state militias (National Guards). In addition to the U.S. creating the National Defense Act that would help build and pay for a legit standing military, the government created the Selective Service Act. Congress gave the President the power to activate a military draft in times of war to ensure that the military was appropriate for the need. In total, by the end of the war, 24 million men had registered. 4 million men volunteered for service, and 2.9 million were tapped for service through the draft.
How are we going to pay for this?Taxes!If you didn't know, wars are funded through tax dollars. The majority of Americans at this time didn't pay income taxes. It was something reserved for the wealthy. President Wilson's administration worked to restructure the tax system to include more Americans and large businesses paying income taxes.
Liberty BondsThe government also created the Liberty Bond Program. In order to participate, the average citizen either attended a bond drive, went to their local government office or bank, or in the case of kids, took their money to school. The money was loaned to the government, and after a period of 20 years, the person would get the loan repaid by the government. A successful propaganda campaign led to most Americans contributing at some point during World War I. The campaign would be remade for World War II with much the same approach.
Liberty BondsThe government also created the Liberty Bond Program. In order to participate, the average citizen either attended a bond drive, went to their local government office or bank, or in the case of kids, took their money to school. The money was loaned to the government, and after a period of 20 years, the person would get the loan repaid by the government. A successful propaganda campaign led to most Americans contributing at some point during World War I. The campaign would be remade for World War II with much the same approach.
"Sow the Seeds of Victory." National Archives and Records Administration. Records of the U.S. Food Administration, Group 4. Source: National Archives.
The pledge card pictured at right was given to my family by the Addieville Elevator, and is signed by my Great Grandmother Anna Suedmeyer. A widow, Anna was the owner of the farm land in question, so her signature was required to pledge to reduce her own use of flour in her household in order to produce more for the war effort.
The card is dated August 8, 1918.
The card is dated August 8, 1918.
Food AdministrationHow easy do you think it would be - today - to convince the average America to eat less meat, less wheat (bread), and start growing and canning their own foods. About as difficult as it was in 1917. The Lever Act, which passed in 1917, created the U.S. Food Administration. According to the National Archives, the purpose of the Food Administration in each state was three fold:
- Assure the supply, distribution, and conservation of food during the war,
- Facilitate transportation of food and prevent monopolies and hoarding, and
- Maintain governmental power over foods by using voluntary agreements and a licensing system.
How Does the Public Support a War Economically, Politically, and Socially? An Effective Propaganda Campaign.In order to "win" a war, a country needs money, support from its people, and soldiers. The country needs the right message to sell the idea of war to the people. To do that, the government created the Committee on Public Information (CPI). This agency published patriotic literature, propaganda posters and movies, and sponsored bond rallies with silent film and radio stars. One of the repetitive messages of this propaganda was that it was America's moral duty to be engaged in a crusade for peace and freedom. That message was dripping with the ideas of imperialism, which, as you'll recall, was popular during this time.The image to the left depicts Germans as beasts, which was a popular message in a campaign to dehumanize the enemy and change the way in which American's viewed Germans. This is one of the most iconic CPI posters produced during World War I. Image Source: History.
"Wake up, America! Civilization calls every man, woman, and child." James Montgomery Flagg, 1917. Source: Smithsonian Institute.
"Enlist. On Which Side of the Window Are You?" Laura Brey, 1917. Source: Smithsonian Institute.
Above: Propaganda poster depicting Kaiser Wilhelm II as a spider and reminding American citizens of the dangers speech (and print) could have on the war effort.
Below: Labor leader Eugene Debs giving an Anti-War speech in Canton, OH on June 16, 1918. Debs was arrested multiple times under the Sedition Act. Source for both images: History.
Below: Labor leader Eugene Debs giving an Anti-War speech in Canton, OH on June 16, 1918. Debs was arrested multiple times under the Sedition Act. Source for both images: History.
Patriotic Americans Only!Partially due to the fear of immigrant disloyalty, and partially due to legitimate dissent in America from pacifists and socialists, the federal government enacted two laws meant to punish people whose loyalties could be questioned. Espionage Act of 1917This law was passed just two months after the war began to head off acts of sabotage the government feared may occur. Crimes included, but were not limited to:
Sedition Act of 1918This law took the elements of the Espionage Act and specifically targeted speech that criticized the draft and the war effort. Specifically, it outlawed language seen as "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, [and] abusive" that was intended to cause "contempt, scorn, [and] disrepute to the Government, the Constitution, and the flag" (National Archives). The Sedition Act was challenged as a violation of the First Amendment right of the Freedom of Speech. The Supreme Court heard multiple cases, most importantly Schenck v. United States. Charles Schenck was arrested for distributing leaflets urging people to disobey the draft. The Supreme Court stated there must be limits on speech during wartime. Justice Oliver Wendall Holmes famously stated, “The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent” (Shenck). In other words, Justice Holmes was stating that the idea that Schenck's words might cause fewer men to enlist and weaken America's fighting force, posing a clear and present danger to America, could not be protected. The clear and present danger test, according to Holmes, was whether or not yelling "Fire" in a crowded theater was protected speech (it's not). The Sedition Act of 1918 was repealed in 1920 as it served no further use after the war's conclusion. Other variations were created to suit the needs of the United States during World War II and the Cold War.
- aiding the enemy
- obstructing recruitment
- causing insubordination in the armed forces
Sedition Act of 1918This law took the elements of the Espionage Act and specifically targeted speech that criticized the draft and the war effort. Specifically, it outlawed language seen as "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, [and] abusive" that was intended to cause "contempt, scorn, [and] disrepute to the Government, the Constitution, and the flag" (National Archives). The Sedition Act was challenged as a violation of the First Amendment right of the Freedom of Speech. The Supreme Court heard multiple cases, most importantly Schenck v. United States. Charles Schenck was arrested for distributing leaflets urging people to disobey the draft. The Supreme Court stated there must be limits on speech during wartime. Justice Oliver Wendall Holmes famously stated, “The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent” (Shenck). In other words, Justice Holmes was stating that the idea that Schenck's words might cause fewer men to enlist and weaken America's fighting force, posing a clear and present danger to America, could not be protected. The clear and present danger test, according to Holmes, was whether or not yelling "Fire" in a crowded theater was protected speech (it's not). The Sedition Act of 1918 was repealed in 1920 as it served no further use after the war's conclusion. Other variations were created to suit the needs of the United States during World War II and the Cold War.
Section 4
Section 4
(Left to right): David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of the United States, the principal architects of the Treaty of Versailles. Image Source: National Archives, Washington, D.C. Accessed through Encyclopedia Britannica.
The Armistice ended World War I at the 11th hour, on the 11th day, of the 11th month in 1918 (November 11, 1918). Fighting completely ended. Now for the hard work: hammering out the details of peace.In 1919, delegates from 32 countries attended meetings at the palace of Versailles in Paris, France. The meetings were led by the "Big Three:"
- David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great Britain
- Georges Clemenceau, French Premiere
- Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States
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