Embedded Files
Issues of Conservation and Reconstruction
Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism
A recent article critical of the way Pompeii is cared for:
The Wrong Way for Pompeii, Ingrid D Rowland, 2013
Past HSC Question 2017
How have conservation efforts attempted to deal with the impact of tourism at Pompeii and Herculaneum?
In your answer, refer to Sources G and H and your own knowledge. 10 marks)
(Source G: Excerpt from 'Tourists are finishing what the volcano started in Pompeii', New York Post, 24 February 2016.
Pompeii is facing another explosive threat... 'tourists are wearing out the ruins of Pompeii. The entrance steps of the Temple of Apollo, in particular, have been ruined by the influx of tourists,' UNESCO official Adele Lagi said at a conference...
But a press spokesperson from the site said there was no need to turn tourists away from Pompeii. 'High numbers of tourists concentrated in a single place does cause damage, but the way to avoid this is to redirect the itineraries within Pompeii and promote different parts of the site, such as the exhibitions and less-visited areas,' she said.)
(Source H: Panorama of the excavations at Herculaneum.)
Past HSC Question 2014
Describe Italian and international contributions to the conservation of the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum. In your answer, use Sources H, I and J and your own knowledge.
Source H: (photograph of) Excavation trench leading to the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, after conservation work and construction of new protective shelters by the Herculaneum Conservation Project.
Source I: Map of all visitor movement at Pompeii. Red lines indicate visitor movement
Locations 1–5 indicate high visitor traffic
Locations 6–10 indicate medium visitor traffic
Locations 11–15 indicate low or no visitor traffic
Source J: Two news items from the UNESCO World Heritage Centre website.
Past HSC Question 2012
Using Sources A, B and H, and your own knowledge, explain the different ways in which archaeologists have reconstructed the past in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Source A: (Photograph of) Plaster casts of bodies in the Garden of the Fugitives at Pompeii.
Source B: (Photograph of) Skeletal remains from the seashore at Herculaneum.
Source H: (Photograph of) Virtual reconstruction of a section of the Via dell’Abbondanza.
Past HSC Question 2011
Discuss the challenges of conserving the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
In your answer, refer to Sources H and I and your own knowledge.
Source H: A photograph of a building which collapsed in Pompeii in 2010
Source I:
... the very features that make the little town of Herculaneum such a vivid evocation of the past ... also render the site exceptionally difficult to preserve for future generations.
The British School at Rome
Past HSC Question 2009
To what extent has tourism influenced the way the sites of Pompeii and/or Herculaneum have been managed since the 1800s?
In your answer, refer to Source 5 and your own knowledge.
Source 5:
At the very heart of any understanding of Pompeii and its archaeology must be the demands of the tourist, who as Maiuri explained was the client of archaeology...
Ray Laurence, University of Birmingham
Past HSC Question 2008
Using Sources 4 and 5 and your own knowledge, assess methods used by archaeologists and/or other specialists to reconstruct the past at Pompeii and/or Herculaneum.
Source 4: (photograph of) Conservation at Herculaneum
Source 5:
... reconstruction provides us with means of visualising past environments, allowing us a glimpse of the past that might otherwise be difficult to appreciate.
Kate Devlin and Alan Chalmers, University of Bristol
This syllabus point requires us to look at Conservation and Reconstruction issues at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Firstly what is conservation and reconstruction? What is the difference between them?
Restoration:Restoration focuses its efforts upon returning an object or work of art to the object’s original state, an assumed condition, or an earlier appearance. In order to obtain these states, conditions, or appearances, often little regard is given to the historic “in-use” alterations and/or changes caused by the passage of time. In archaeology, good reconstruction should use reversible materials that do not damage the original object or site. From a distance you should get the impression of what the original looked like but up close the restoration should be evident. Good restoration would be restoring the roof of a house, poor restorattion the brutal reconstruction of the theatre. Good restoration also, the mosaics in Herculaneum that were falling apart, made complete again using the original loose tesserae that were scattered in the room, otherwise may have been lost. Another example the Alexander mosaic from the House of the Faun (masterpiece) more than 1 million pieces that tourists were stealing. It was removed and now is shown in the Naples museum. The original was copied and replaced in the original location, now tourist are stealing pieces of the replica.
Restoration:Restoration focuses its efforts upon returning an object or work of art to the object’s original state, an assumed condition, or an earlier appearance. In order to obtain these states, conditions, or appearances, often little regard is given to the historic “in-use” alterations and/or changes caused by the passage of time. In archaeology, good reconstruction should use reversible materials that do not damage the original object or site. From a distance you should get the impression of what the original looked like but up close the restoration should be evident. Good restoration would be restoring the roof of a house, poor restorattion the brutal reconstruction of the theatre. Good restoration also, the mosaics in Herculaneum that were falling apart, made complete again using the original loose tesserae that were scattered in the room, otherwise may have been lost. Another example the Alexander mosaic from the House of the Faun (masterpiece) more than 1 million pieces that tourists were stealing. It was removed and now is shown in the Naples museum. The original was copied and replaced in the original location, now tourist are stealing pieces of the replica.
Another example is frescoes from both sites. In 250 years around 1/3 to 1/2 of the frescoes first uncovered have been undocumented and eroded. Those that were removed and placed in Naples Museum, have survived but what has Pompeii lost as a result?
Conservation: In the past 40 years, the restoration of art and historic cultural artifacts has evolved and developed into the profession of art conservation. Conservation of art and cultural property is an interdisciplinary approach which incorporates art, historic research, scientific analysis, and material science to document, stabilize, and preserve historic artifacts. Conservation focuses on the stabilization and preservation of an object using preventative measures to inhibit on-going or future deterioration of the object or its components. This is accomplished by selecting methods and materials that, to the best of current knowledge, do not adversely affect the historic or artistic object’s original materials. Ideally, conservation treatments will not impede future examination or scientific analysis nor adversely impact future treatments or functionality of the object.
Conservation: In the past 40 years, the restoration of art and historic cultural artifacts has evolved and developed into the profession of art conservation. Conservation of art and cultural property is an interdisciplinary approach which incorporates art, historic research, scientific analysis, and material science to document, stabilize, and preserve historic artifacts. Conservation focuses on the stabilization and preservation of an object using preventative measures to inhibit on-going or future deterioration of the object or its components. This is accomplished by selecting methods and materials that, to the best of current knowledge, do not adversely affect the historic or artistic object’s original materials. Ideally, conservation treatments will not impede future examination or scientific analysis nor adversely impact future treatments or functionality of the object.
The body responsible for the Vesuvian sites is the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompeii. International groups also contribute under the umbrella of the Superintendenzia through specific projects aimed at conservation and some restoration of various locations at Pompeii. Herculaeum is different in that it is managed by a single group, the British School of Archaeology in Rome, led by Andrew Wallace Hadrill: Herculaneum Conservation Project.
2010 collapse of the House of the Gladiators: What are the conservation and reconstruction issues at this site?
Building collapses in Pompeii
On 6 November 2010 the building is commonly called the School of the Gladiators or incorrectly the House of the Gladiators. Above is a photo of Via dell'Abbondanza in 2008 showing the Schola on the right. Next to it is a photo after the collapse of the building.
The collapse prompted an analysis of the difficulties faced by the archaeological site: Behind the Collapse of the "House of the Gladiators". (This article is by Frank Sear, Professor of Classics at Melbourne University, who, among other positions, was co-director of the Australian team in the Houses in Pompeii Project from 1978-1988.)
Praise for Herculaneum Conservation Project. What does the name of this project suggest about it's purpose?
Using the websites below and the clips, outline the goals and achievements of the HCP. Outline 3 great examples of conservation and restoration at Herculaneum.
The overall aim of the HCP project is to support the Soprintendenza to safeguard and conserve, to enhance, and to advance the knowledge, understanding and public appreciation of the ancient site of Herculaneum and its artefacts. In 2006 the main objectives were better defined (and approved by the scientific committee overseeing the project) as follows:
- to slow down the rate of decay across the entire site so that it can be maintained in future on a sustainable basis;
- to test and implement long‐term conservation strategies that are appropriate for Herculaneum and potentially applicable to other, similar sites;
- to provide a basis of documentation of Herculaneum so as to facilitate its future management;
- to acquire new archaeological knowledge about Herculaneum derived as an integral element of the activities devoted to its preservation;
- to conserve, document, publish and improve access to the artefacts found in excavations at Herculaneum;
- to promote greater knowledge of and discussion about Herculaneum among the scientific community, the local population and the general public.
Another site that is good.
Link http://www.herculaneum.org/
New York Times article on Herculaneum Conservation project https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/15/arts/design/herculaneums-ruins-are-revived-by-philanthropy.html
Watch this clip and note down the conservation issues and solutions demonstrated here.
What is interesting about this approach?
More on the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei
The Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompeii is the Italian organisation responsible for the Vesuvian sites, Pompeii, Herculaueum, Stabai, Oplontis. On its website, under Who We Are, it describes itself this way:
The Special Superintendency for the Archaeological Heritage of Naples and Pompeii (SANP) is a decentralized body of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities, vested with special independent status, whose sphere of competence is the preservation, conservation and public utilization of archaeological resources.
The territorial scope of its competence currently encompasses the entire province of Naples and, in addition to Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Vesuvian sites.
It's aims are the management of the site, intervention through conservation to try and slow the decay of the sites, preserve and protect what remains and allow public access.
Think about these aims, how might they be in conflict with one another?
Lets explore some of the historical issues.
Pompeii is the longest running archaeological excavation in history. The ruins at Pompeii were first discovered late in the 16th century by the architect Domenico Fontana. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and systematic excavation began there in 1738. Work did not begin at Pompeii until 1748, and in 1763 an inscription was found that identified the site as Pompeii. The work at these towns in the mid-18th century marked the start of the modern science of archaeology. So close to 250 years, during this time archaeology has evolved into the careful science that it is today, but in early times it was poorly excavated, poorly documented, conserved and reconstructed. Reconstruction was often poorly thought out and the materials used very inappropriate ie reinforced concrete used by Mauri. Italian and International groups no longer excavation, stopped since 1975 and the focus has been on conservation, management, redocumentating using modern scientific methods and preservation of both sites. Nonetheless the sites, especially Pompeii have still been plagued by issues and poorly management at times. Nonetheless, there are some success stories and Herculaneum is often held up as the model for good site management.
Pompeii Viva.
“Pompei Viva” was a entertainment festival located at Pompeii in 2010. For this festival the Great Theatre was restored in a manner that has drawn much criticism due to it's use of modern bricks, light embedded in the seating and heavy handed design. During this festival tourists enjoyed unprecedented access to the site, the archaeology over a summer long period. A building behind the Forum was converted into a modern restaurant where pizzas are served.
A Superintendenzia of Pompeii’s ruins has been fined €400,000 for permanently damaging the theatre by adding seating so that it could host shows. Marcello Fiori took out temporary wooden benches and cemented in stone seats as part of an attempt to make money from operas. Officials say that the appearance of the theatre has been permanently altered. “It went from looking like a Roman theatre to the place where they do the entertaining at a tourist resort,” one official said. Appointed by Silvio Berlusconi, the prime minister, Mr Fiori ordered the seating in 2010, as well as adding temporary structures for performers, at a cost of more than €5 million. He has denied wrongdoing.
Look at the modern brick in place of grass and ancient seat remains shown in top left photo. Here left, you can also see the modern lighting in the sides of the brick seats. You can see original seating at the forefront of the stage.
Why does this restoration not conform to standards of ethical restoration?
This pizza cafe and snack bar were installed for the Pompeii Viva festival.
What issues can you think of concerning this? Is it restoration? or conservation or something else? Is it ethical?
PompeiViva - House of the Chaste Lovers - modern saffolding support the roof restoration and conservation of the building
House of Julius Polybius - modern ramp allows disability access to the building. Good or bad restoration? or is it modification?
The Great Pompeii Project- focus on conservation
The Great Pompeii Project- focus on conservation
It came about following major criticism of the site management following the building collapses in 2010.
Go to the Soprintendenza's website (make sure you click the "English" link - a meno che non possa leggere l'italiano).
Click on the Pompeii Projects link. You will find links to the following:
Pompeii bakeries project
Pompeii necropolis project
the Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia
the EU Pompeii Project (Great Pompeii Project)
Restoration of the Atrium mosaic floor House of the Orchard (I.9.5-7) 2016
Make some notes on the conservation work of the Soprintendenza. Include some assessment of its success over the years.
A lecture by the superintendent of Pompeii and Naples, Massimo Osanna, delivered at the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World (Brown University, Rhode Island, USA) on 9 November 2016. The lecture is titled: "The Great Pompeii Project: New Life for the Dead City".
Make notes and outline some examples of the work they hope to achieve through the project.
As part of the Great Pompeii Project the Antiquarium of Pompeii reopens after being closed for 36 years.
Here is a link to a newspaper article from "The Guardian", 20 April 2016, reporting the latest news on the sad state of Pompeii:
Pompeii: is this the best they can do with €105m?
The frescoes.
The Fresoces
The frescoes of Pompeii were both damaged by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from heat and falling debris, which scratched and loosened the plaster and paint, and simultaneously preserved by the volcanic ash until their discovery. During the beginning of the excavation of Pompeii, inexperienced and untrained excavators cut out pieces of fresco they found without the use of linen and other facing materials to protect the plaster, resulting in many frescoes being broken into multiple fragments. Wall painting scenes that were considered worthy of detachment were brought to the Palazzo degli Studi in Naples, today known as the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, after 1827.[1]
The frescoes have been affected by rain and groundwater, which have caused water damage and rising damp, resulting in deteriorating and collapsing walls.Frescoes are part of an open physical system in which they are in contact with contiguous structures—such as walls, roofs, and the ground—that are dynamically involved in a series of chemical and physical events, such as the capillary movement and rise of moisture. Catastrophic physical forces such as earthquakes—which have been causing structural damage to the buildings and cracks in the walls since A.D. 62—and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, have contributed to the deterioration of the frescoes. The frescoes of Pompeii were both damaged by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from heat and falling debris, which scratched and loosened the plaster and paint and simultaneously preserved by the volcanic ash until their discovery. In addition, the frost of 1816 entirely destroyed murals in the Amphitheatre in the Villa of Cicero at the Praedia of Julia Felix.
Restoration efforts in the late eighteenth century resulted in poorly supported walls and masonry that have proven insufficient for the protection of the wall paintings and have contributed to their rapid degradation. Plaster was fixed with heavy metal clamps, which have gradually come away and left holes and other damage, and the edges of the paintings were smeared with ordinary mortar that has yet to be replaced.
Mass tourism that has taken place at Pompeii is another contributing factor to the deterioration of the frescoes. Wear and breakage have occurred due to people leaning on and touching the frescoes, as well as abrasions from bags and other objects rubbing against the frescoes in crowded areas. Vandals have also defaced the frescoes with graffiti. In addition, the frescoes at Pompeii have deteriorated due to poor management, decreased internal maintenance, and a lack of sustainable methods for restoration and conservation
Conservation of frescoes today.
Conservators and leadership are working to better understand the current situation of the Pompeian frescoes in order to avoid further damage and deterioration. The Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei is working on a major reorganization and implementation of new policies and maintenance plans for the entire site of Pompeii.[12]
Attention has been given to non-intrusive and reversible reinforcement of the walls, structures and roofs of the buildings that house the frescoes. Recommendations have been made for the reconstruction of the building infrastructures using safe and sturdy materials, and light, modern supports, unlike the previous heavy materials placed in the walls, which caused significant damage. Recommendations have also been made for roof reinforcement structures and other conservation interventions that block ventilation and rain infiltration,and allow for humidity regulation to prevent the plaster of the frescoes from peeling off the walls. Plans for engineering new drainage and sewer systems are also being made.
Excavations of Pompeii have been significantly reduced, and barricades, fences, and locked doors have been placed to keep visitors out of vulnerable areas and buildings.Select insulae are also being considered for re-burial in order to protect them from further vegetal growth, weather conditions, earthquake damage, and volcanic eruptions.
As an open, reactive system, frescoes require more surveillance after conservation. The use of high-tech monitoring tools is also being put into place. An agreement was made with Italian technology and defense company, for their donation of services concerning: protection of the artistic heritage from deterioration, pollution, hydrogeological and seismic risks; efficiency, sustainability and safety of the spaces dedicated to culture; and accessibility and fruition of the artistic heritage.
Efforts are being made to stabilize the frescoes' chemical and biological degradation and perform long-lasting restoration. In a holistic approach to conservation, the causes of decay are being addressed while increasing the site's ability to prevent or slow future decay. Routine cleaning of all previously restored works and constant upkeep practices are being put into place.
Conservators and restorers are meticulously stripping away layers of paraffin, dirt, and varnish with cotton swabs that restorers applied between the 1930s and 1970s to prevent the paints from cracking and flaking. Laser tools are being used to melt away wax and gasoline buildup while leaving the paint untouched.Other conservation treatments include the consolidation of brittle plaster and paint layers, the removal of inadequate in painting of losses, and improving old fills that were used with cement.
Interesting article outlining historical perspective on restoration efforts and conservation at Pompeii
Pompeii 2016 - barriers along Via dell'Abbondanza Pompeii 2016 - street blocked to tourists
House of the Gladiators Collapse article. Link. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/8115830/Pompeii-ruin-collapses-amid-claims-site-mismanaged.html
New York Times article about the longstanding neglect of Pompeii LINK
The Herculaneum Conservation Project
One of the important roles of the Soprintendenza is to coordinate international projects of research and/or conservation. One of the most high-profile of these is the Herculaneum Conservation Project.
Go to the HCP website and make some notes on the aims and objectives of the project and some examples of its conservation work.
Since 2001 the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a collaboration between the Packard Humanities Institute and the Soprintendenza, supported by the British School at Rome, has sought to address some of the most pressing threats to the survival of the site. The focus has been on infrastructural problems – roofing and drains. It has also sought by scientific experiment to analyse the critical conservation risks and to develop better approaches to solving or reducing them. It has stressed the importance of regular maintenance with the development of sustainable programmes for the future. In the course of work, it has made many new archaeological discoveries, and cast new light on the history of the site. It tries to involve the local community closely in its activities, has undertaken joint projects with the town council, and helped set up the Herculaneum Centre.
The project, under the guidance of Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, began in 2001. I can't find a record of when it finished but it is listed on the British School at Rome's website as a completed project.
Make some notes on the conservation work of the Herculaneum Conservation Project. Include some assessment of its success over the years.
Restoration work - Decumanus Maximus - 2008
ABC Radio National: Artworks - "This past European summer Julie Copeland travelled to the site of Herculaneum for Artworks, where she was shown around by the director, Andrew Wallace Hadrill."
Impact of Tourism
Pompeii and Herculaneum depend on tourism for survival. To what extent does the need to drive tourist numbers affect the way Pompeii is presented to the public? In the early 19th Century, when wealthy tourists on the Grand European Tour would visit Pompeii, they were often treated to a display of specially arranged skeletal remains. For a particularly honoured guest, a recently excavated house may have been back filled so the guest could participate in the "excavation". This was archaeology as a theme-park attraction. Does this still happen today? Does a place so rich in historical remains require sideshow elements to attract or entertain visitors? The answer seems to be 'yes'.
Some examples:
Pink Floyd
In 1971, the rock group Pink Floyd performed a closed concert in the Pompeii amphitheatre which was filmed and sold as: "Pink Floyd - Live at Pompeii". In July 2016, Pink Floyd singer David Gilmour returned for a concert in the same venue. To commemorate the concerts, the Soprintendenza has curated a display of photographs of the 1971 concert, on display in the gladiator passageways under the amphitheatre.
David Gilmour Returns to Pompeii With Refigured Pink Floyd Classics
Live at Pompeii, underground (photographic display)
Mito e Natura dalla Grecia a Pompei
Myth and Nature: from Greece to Pompeii. An exhibition curated by the Soprintendenza was held in a wooden pyramid constructed in the Pompeii amphitheatre. The exhibition ran from 16 March to 15 June 2016. While many of the objects in the exhibit related to Pompeii, the pyramid detracted from the amphitheatre and the visitor's ability to take in its scope and use.
Pyramid constructed in the Amphitheatre, Pompeii, 2016
Sculptures on display in Pompeii
Sculptures by Polish artist Igor Mitoraj, were on display throughout Pompeii during 2016 until 8 January 2017. While being beautiful and striking, they don't have much to do with Pompeii.
The Second Death of Pompeii and Herculaneum
"To dig is to destroy".
"... an abrupt change in the environment which causes a series of devastating changes in structures and objects." (E. Pye, Caring for the Past, p 23)
"[mortar] crumbles easily... and can be eroded by the wind... it encourages rising damp, which damages the painted murals." (H. de Saint-Blanquat, in R. Etienne, The Day a City Died, pp 202-3)
Damage caused by rising damp - House of the Little Bronze Bull
Long term neglect: 1957 inventory of murals (Karl Schefold) - one third faded completely. By late 1970s, half of those remaining had been lost.
Failed restoration and conservation: softwood lintels over doors; iron armatures in concrete; frescoes damaged by use of modern materials.
Vandalism and theft: 1977 - 14 frescoes cut from walls of the House of the Gladiators
Allied bombing in 1943
Earthquake in 1980
Weather: light causes fading of frescoes; acid rain; winter rain
Growth of weeds, algae and lichen
Bird/pigeon droppings
Impact of tourists
Crime syndicates stealing antiquities
Many of these points are made in an article by Henri de Saint-Blanquat in Sciences et Avenir, no.469, March 1986. Pamela Bradley uses this article extensively. You can download this article to read from the bottom of this page.
Overgrown peristyle in Vicolo dei Vettii Weeds growing in a wall
The Second Death of Pompeii (1).docx2017 HSC
In relation to students’ own knowledge: Markers notes.
Question 8 (10 marks)
How have conservation efforts attempted to deal with the impact of tourism at Pompeii and
Herculaneum?
In your answer, refer to Sources G and H and your own knowledge.
.......................................................................................................................
Markers notes
Conservation efforts
• Limited access to particular buildings or areas to allow for ongoing conservation.
• Use of new technologies to display cultural heritage on site which limits or eliminates damage (eg 3-D, holographic and touch-screen displays; replicas of original artefacts on site)
• Funding by Italian and international bodies to support conservation efforts (eg UNESCO, the Herculaneum Conservation Project, the Pompeii Forum project, the regional soprintendenza)
• Problematic reconstruction designed to attract or increase tourism (eg the Large Theatre at Pompeii, the display of skeletal remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum, the addition of second storeys at Pompeii and Herculaneum)
• Removal, preservation and conservation of material culture for display in museum collections.
• special teams working on the preservation of frescoes at P and H.
Impacts of tourism
• The importance of tourism as a source of funding for continued conservation
Deliberate or accidental impacts at Pompeii and Herculaneum (eg graffiti, theft of property, vandalism, environmental effects of large numbers of human beings).
pompeii conservation, site management etc 2015.pptxHow do you feel about what this documentary reveals? June, 2020.
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