Overview

A mood disorder is characterized by extreme or inappropriate emotions. Mood disorders are divided into two groups - unipolar (one emotion) or bipolar (two emotions). 

Influences on Mood Disorders:

• Genetic - Both depressive and bipolar disorders run in families.

• Neuroscientific - Neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine influence mood and behavior.

• Nutrition - Those who follow the “Mediterranean Diet”, which is heavy on vegetables and fish, have a lowered risk of heart disease, stroke, cognitive decline, and depression.

• Social-Cognitive - Surrounding oneself with positive influences and a positive environment can minimize the risk of developing depression.

Depression

Major Depressive Disorder (aka depression) is a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either depressed mood or loss of interest/please (anhedonia). 

To be diagnosed with major depressive disorder or another depressive disorder, the patient must exhibit one or both of the following:

• Depressed mood most of the day, and/or

• Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in activities 

Plus three or more of these listed below:

• Significant increase or decrease in appetite or weight

• Insomnia, sleeping too much, or disrupted sleep 

• Lethargy, or physical agitation 

• Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day 

• Worthlessness, or excessive/inappropriate guilt 

• Daily problems in thinking, concentrating, and/or making decisions 

• Recurring thoughts of death and suicide 

Some people make an unfair criticism of themselves or others with major depression: “There is nothing to be depressed about.” If someone with asthma has an attack, do we say, “what do you have to be gasping about?”. It is bad enough to have MDD that persists even under “good” circumstances. Don’t add criticism by implying the depression is an exaggerated response.

• Depression is the #1 reason people seek mental health services.

• Depression appears worldwide: 

• Per year, depressive episodes happen to about 6 percent of men and about 9 percent of women. 

• Over the course of a lifetime, 12 percent of Canadians and 17 percent of Americans experience depression.

Other Forms of Depression

Dysthymia (Persistent Depressive Disorder) - chronic or long-lasting depression

Postpartum Depression - type of depression that occurs after childbirth due to changes in hormones and anxiety over parenting; often mild and referred to as the  “Baby Blues” but can be dangerous if left untreated

Seasonal Affective Disorder - depression that is experienced during the winter months based not on temperature, but on amount of sunlight (or lack thereof); treated with light therapy. 

Bipolar 

Bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic-depressive disorder) is when a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. When a depressive episode ends, a euphoric, overly talkative wildly energetic and extremely optimistic state called mania follows, after which the person goes back to depression or returns to normal. 

Overview

Dissociative disorders are controversial and rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and/or feelings.

• Dissociative Amnesia - sudden loss of memory or change in identity due to memory loss

• Dissociative Identity Disorder - a.k.a. multiple personality disorder

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Dissociative Identity Disorder (or DID) is a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. 

• commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma

• often misdiagnosed or exaggerated → Sybil

Alternate theories of DID:

• Role playing

• Cultural perception (“evil spirits”)

• Therapy makes it worse

Feeding/Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes engaging in excessive exercise

Bulimia Nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight loss behavior, such as purging, laxative use, and/or excessive exercise

Binge Eating Disorder: significant episodes of excessive eating followed by distress, disgust, or guilt (but without the compensatory behavior seen in bulimia nervosa)

Specific Learning Disorders

Motor Disorders

Autism

Treatmen

• Aaron Beck: an American psychiatrist known for his development of cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), as well as his cognitive theory of depression, which emphasizes the role of negative thinking patterns in the development and maintenance of depression.

• active listening: a communication technique used in therapy and counseling that involves fully concentrating, understanding, responding, and empathizing with what the speaker is saying, through verbal and nonverbal cues, to facilitate deeper understanding and rapport.

• acute schizophrenia: a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by sudden onset of psychotic symptoms, often accompanied by emotional turmoil, confusion, or behavioral disturbances, which may require immediate intervention and stabilization.

• adaptation-level phenomenon: a cognitive bias in which individuals adapt to and become accustomed to their current level of environmental stimuli or life circumstances, thereby recalibrating their expectations and judgments over time.

• adverse childhood experiences: Traumatic events occurring before age 18 that can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being.

• aerobic exercise: physical activity that increases heart rate and oxygen consumption over an extended period, such as running, swimming, or cycling, which has been shown to improve physical health, mental well-being, and cognitive function.

• agoraphobia: an anxiety disorder characterized by fear or avoidance of situations or places where escape or help may be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack or other anxiety symptoms, such as crowded spaces, public transportation, or open spaces.

• alarm stage: The initial reaction to stress, activating the fight-or-flight response.

• Albert Ellis: an American psychologist known for his development of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a form of cognitive therapy that emphasizes identifying and challenging irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions to promote more adaptive thinking and behavior.

• American Psychological Association (APA): The leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States.

• anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, leading to severe restriction of food intake, excessive exercise, and distorted body image, often resulting in significant weight loss and medical complications.

• anti-social personality disorder: a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, lack of empathy or remorse, and impulsive or antisocial behavior, often beginning in adolescence or early adulthood.

• antianxiety drugs: also known as anxiolytics or benzodiazepines, medications used to alleviate symptoms of anxiety disorders by enhancing the activity of neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which has calming effects on the central nervous system.

• antidepressants: medications used to treat symptoms of depressive disorders by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain, which are implicated in mood regulation and emotional well-being.

• antipsychotic drugs: also known as neuroleptics, medications used to manage symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain and reducing hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

• anxiety disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive, persistent, and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety, fear, or apprehension, often accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid heartbeat or sweating.

• approach-approach conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two desirable or attractive options, each of which has its own benefits and rewards, making the decision difficult.

• approach-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual is attracted to a goal or outcome (approach) but also experiences negative feelings or consequences associated with pursuing that goal (avoidance), leading to ambivalence and uncertainty.

• ataque de nervios: a culture-bound syndrome prevalent among Latinos, characterized by uncontrollable shouting, crying, and trembling.

• attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning and development, typically diagnosed in childhood and often persisting into adulthood.

• autism spectrum disorders: a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction, restricted interests, repetitive behaviors, and sensory sensitivities, varying in severity and presentation.

• aversive conditioning: a behavior therapy technique that pairs an undesired behavior with an unpleasant stimulus or consequence, with the aim of reducing or eliminating the behavior through negative reinforcement or punishment.

• avoidance-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two undesirable or aversive options, each of which has its own negative consequences, making the decision challenging.

• avoidant personality disorder: a disorder characterized by social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.

• B. F. Skinner: an American psychologist and behaviorist known for his research on operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, and the development of behavior therapy techniques such as operant conditioning and token economies.

• behavioral perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned.

• behavior therapy: a type of psychotherapy that focuses on modifying maladaptive behaviors and promoting adaptive ones through techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, modeling, and exposure, based on principles of learning and conditioning.

• biofeedback: a technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes such as heart rate and muscle tension by providing real-time feedback.

• biological perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on the physiological bases of behavior and mental processes.

• biomedical therapy: the use of biological or medical interventions, such as medication, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or psychosurgery, to treat mental disorders by targeting underlying biological or neurological mechanisms.

• bipolar disorder: formerly known as manic-depressive illness, a mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania or hypomania, which are periods of elevated mood, energy, and activity.

• bipolar I: type of bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often with depressive episodes.

• bipolar II: type of bipolar disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes.

• borderline personality disorder: disorder characterized by instability in mood, self-image, and behavior, often resulting in impulsive actions and unstable relationships.

• broaden-and-build theory: a theory proposed by Barbara Fredrickson suggesting that positive emotions broaden individuals' thought-action repertoires and build psychological resources, promoting resilience, creativity, and personal growth over time.

• bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating (eating large amounts of food in a short period) followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise, to prevent weight gain.

• Carl Rogers: an American psychologist and one of the founders of humanistic psychology, known for his development of person-centered therapy and his emphasis on the importance of empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard in therapeutic relationships.

• catatonia: state of unresponsiveness to external stimuli, often including rigid body posture or repetitive movements.

• catharsis: a therapeutic process or emotional release through the expression or release of pent-up emotions, such as anger or grief, often facilitated through talking, writing, or artistic expression, which may promote psychological healing and relief.

• chronic schizophrenia: a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by persistent and long-term symptoms, impairment, and functional decline, typically with a gradual onset and poor response to treatment.

• cluster A personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors. Includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.

• cluster B personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.

• cluster C personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors. Includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.

• cognitive perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving 

• cognitive therapy: a form of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and changing dysfunctional thought patterns, beliefs, and cognitive distortions that contribute to psychological distress and maladaptive behaviors, through cognitive restructuring and behavioral interventions.

• cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): a widely used form of psychotherapy that combines cognitive restructuring (changing negative thought patterns) with behavioral interventions (changing maladaptive behaviors), to treat a variety of mental health conditions.

• compulsion: repetitive, rule-based behaviors that a person feels compelled to perform to reduce anxiety.

• confirmation bias: a cognitive bias that involves seeking, interpreting, or recalling information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring or discounting evidence that contradicts them, which can lead to errors in judgment or decision-making.

• coping: the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral efforts to manage, reduce, or tolerate stressors, challenges, or adverse circumstances, in order to adapt and maintain psychological well-being.

• coronary heart disease: a medical condition characterized by the narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, which may result in chest pain (angina), heart attack, or other cardiovascular complications.

• counterconditioning: a behavior therapy technique used to replace or counteract maladaptive responses (such as fear or anxiety) with adaptive ones, by pairing the feared or aversive stimulus with a positive or neutral stimulus to change the emotional response.

• culture-bound disorders: psychological disorders found only in certain cultures.

• deinstitutionalization: the movement in mental health care towards discharging individuals from psychiatric hospitals or institutions and providing community-based treatment and support services, aimed at reducing reliance on long-term institutionalization and promoting integration into society.

• delusion: a fixed, false belief that is firmly held despite evidence to the contrary, often involving beliefs of persecution, grandiosity, or control, which are characteristic symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.

• dependent personality disorder: disorder characterized by a pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior.

• depressive disorders: also known as mood disorders, a group of mental health conditions characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or loss of interest or pleasure in activities, leading to significant impairment in functioning.

• diagnosis: the process of identifying and labeling a disorder based on its symptoms and signs.

• dialectical behavior therapy (DBT): type of cognitive-behavioral therapy that focuses on teaching coping skills to manage stress, regulate emotions, and improve relationships.

• diathesis-stress model: a psychological theory proposing that the development of psychological disorders results from an interaction between predisposing vulnerabilities (diatheses) and environmental stressors, such as traumatic events or chronic stress, which can trigger or exacerbate symptoms.

• discrimination : unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or gender.

• distress: negative stress that can cause anxiety and decrease performance.

• dissociation: a mental process involving a disruption or detachment from one's thoughts, feelings, memories, or identity, often as a defense mechanism against overwhelming stress, trauma, or psychological distress

• dissociative amnesia: a dissociative disorder characterized by partial or total memory loss of important personal information, events, or experiences, often associated with trauma or stress.

• dissociative disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by disruptions or disturbances in memory, identity, consciousness, or perception, often as a response to severe trauma or stress.

• dissociative identity disorder: formerly known as multiple personality disorder, is a dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities, which may alternate control over an individual's behavior.

• dopamine hypothesis: the theory that schizophrenia is associated with an excess of dopamine activity in the brain.

• Dorothea Dix: an American advocate for mental health reform in the 19th century, known for her efforts to improve conditions for individuals with mental illness and establish humane treatment facilities and asylums.

• dream interpretation: psychoanalytic technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious thoughts and desires.

• DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, Text Revision): a widely used classification system published by the American Psychiatric Association, providing criteria for diagnosing and classifying mental disorders based on symptoms, behaviors, and clinical presentations.

• eclectic approach: involves integrating principles, techniques, and strategies from multiple theoretical perspectives or therapeutic modalities, tailored to meet the individual needs and preferences of clients.

• electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a medical procedure used to treat severe depression, bipolar disorder, or other mental health conditions, by inducing controlled seizures in the brain through electrical stimulation, to alleviate symptoms and improve mood.

• emotion-focused coping: efforts to regulate or manage the emotional distress associated with stressors, by seeking support, expressing emotions, or reframing the situation in order to reduce negative emotional reactions.

• epigenetics: the study of changes in gene expression or activity that are not caused by alterations in the DNA sequence itself, but rather by chemical modifications to the DNA molecule or associated proteins, influenced by environmental factors and experiences.

• Ernest Hilgard: an American psychologist known for his research on hypnosis, pain perception, and the development of the neo dissociation theory of hypnosis, which posits that hypnosis involves a split in consciousness between the executive control system and hidden observer.

• eustress: positive, motivating stress that can improve performance and well-being.

• evidence-based practice: the integration of research evidence, clinical expertise, and client preferences and values in making informed decisions about treatment and interventions in mental health care, to ensure the effectiveness and appropriateness of interventions.

• evolutionary perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior.

• exhaustion stage: the stage where the body's resources are depleted and it becomes susceptible to illness.

• exposure therapies: behavior therapy techniques that involve gradual and systematic exposure to feared or anxiety-provoking stimuli or situations, with the goal of reducing fear, anxiety, and avoidance behaviors through habituation and extinction of conditioned responses.

• external locus of control: a belief that external forces, chance, or luck primarily determine one's life outcomes, experiences, and success, leading to feelings of powerlessness and reliance on external sources of control.

• family therapy: a form of psychotherapy that involves working with families and their members to improve communication, resolve conflicts, and address interpersonal dynamics and relational patterns that contribute to psychological distress or dysfunction.

• feel-good, do-good phenomenon: a psychological phenomenon whereby individuals who are in a positive mood or experience positive emotions are more likely to engage in altruistic or prosocial behavior toward others.

• fight-or-flight response: the body's automatic response to a perceived threat, preparing for either confrontation or avoidance.

• flat affect: lack of emotional expression often seen in individuals with schizophrenia.

• free association: psychoanalytic technique in which patients say whatever comes to mind without censorship as a way of exploring the unconscious.

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• general adaptation syndrome: a theoretical framework proposed by Hans Selye to describe the body's physiological response to stress, involving three stages - alarm (activation of fight-or-flight response), resistance (adaptation and coping with stressors), and exhaustion (depletion of resources and increased susceptibility to illness).

• generalized anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive and persistent worry or anxiety about a wide range of everyday events or activities, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as muscle tension or restlessness.

• gratitude: the feeling or expression of appreciation, thankfulness, or recognition for the positive aspects of one's life, experiences, or relationships, which has been linked to greater happiness, resilience, and well-being.

• group therapy: a form of psychotherapy that involves a therapist leading a group of individuals with similar mental health concerns in therapeutic discussions, activities, or exercises, to explore emotions, share experiences, and provide mutual support.

• hallucination: false perception in the absence of a stimulus, such as hearing voices or seeing things that are not there.

• Hans Selye: a Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist known for his research on stress and the general adaptation syndrome, proposing that the body's response to stress involves three stages - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• health psychology: a subfield of psychology that focuses on the psychological factors influencing health, illness, and healthcare delivery, including the study of behaviors, attitudes, and emotions related to health outcomes and well-being.

• hoarding disorder: a mental health condition characterized by persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value, leading to excessive accumulation of clutter and impairment in functioning.

• humanistic perspective: an approach to psychology that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and free will.

• hypertension: high blood pressure, which can be exacerbated by stress.

• hypnosis: a trance-like state of focused attention, concentration, and suggestibility induced by a trained therapist, often used in therapy to facilitate relaxation, increase receptivity to suggestions, and explore subconscious thoughts and memories.

• insight therapies: psychotherapeutic approaches that aim to increase self-awareness and understanding of one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, with the goal of resolving psychological conflicts, gaining insight into underlying issues, and promoting personal growth and well-being.

• internal locus of control: a belief that one's own actions, efforts, and decisions primarily determine one's life outcomes, experiences, and success, leading to feelings of autonomy, responsibility, and self-efficacy.

• interpretation: the therapist's analysis and explanation of the underlying meanings, motives, or conflicts revealed through the client's thoughts, behaviors, dreams, or associations, with the aim of fostering insight and understanding.

• Joseph Wolpe: a South African psychiatrist known for his development of systematic desensitization as a treatment for phobias, as well as his contributions to behavior therapy and the understanding of anxiety disorders.

• Kurt Lewin: a German-American psychologist known for his contributions to social psychology, group dynamics, and field theory, emphasizing the importance of environmental factors, group processes, and change management in understanding behavior.

• learned helplessness: a psychological phenomenon in which individuals become passive and resigned in the face of aversive stimuli or uncontrollable events, due to repeated experiences of failure or lack of control.

• lithium: mood-stabilizing drug commonly used to treat bipolar disorder.

• lobotomy: a form of psychosurgery that involves severing or damaging connections in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, to alleviate symptoms of severe mental illness, although it is now largely discredited due to its severe and often irreversible side effects.

• major depressive disorder: a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness, or hopelessness, accompanied by changes in appetite, sleep, energy levels, and concentration, lasting for at least two weeks.

• mania: a distinct period of abnormally elevated or irritable mood, accompanied by increased energy, activity, talkativeness, grandiosity, and impulsivity, which may occur in bipolar disorder or other psychiatric conditions.

• Martin Seligman: an American psychologist known for his research on learned helplessness, optimism, resilience, and positive psychology, emphasizing the study of human strengths, virtues, and well-being.

• Mary Cover Jones: an American psychologist known for her pioneering work in behavior therapy and for conducting one of the earliest documented cases of systematic desensitization to treat a child's phobia of rabbits.

• medical model: an approach to understanding psychological disorders that conceptualizes them as medical conditions or illnesses, with symptoms, causes, and treatments similar to physical diseases, often emphasizing biological, genetic, and neurological factors.

• meditation: practice where an individual uses techniques such as mindfulness to achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm state.

• meta-analysis: a statistical method used to combine and analyze the results of multiple independent studies on a specific topic or research question, to provide a comprehensive summary of the overall findings and evaluate the strength of evidence across studies.

• mindfulness meditation: a practice that involves paying attention to the present moment, with openness, curiosity, and acceptance, often through techniques such as focused breathing or body scanning, which can reduce stress, enhance self-awareness, and promote emotional regulation.

• narcissistic personality disorder: disorder characterized by a long-term pattern of exaggerated self-importance, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.

• neurodevelopmental disorders: a group of conditions characterized by impairments in brain function, development, or behavior that manifest early in childhood, such as autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

• obsession: persistent, intrusive thoughts, impulses, or images that cause significant anxiety.

• obsessive-compulsive disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals performed to alleviate anxiety or prevent perceived harm (compulsions).

• obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.

• panic attack: sudden episode of intense fear or anxiety with physical symptoms such as heart palpitations and shortness of breath.

• panic disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden episodes of intense fear or discomfort, accompanied by physical symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, or dizziness.

• paranoid personality disorder: characterized by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others.

• persistent depressive disorder: also known as dysthymia, a chronic form of depression characterized by persistent low mood, irritability, or hopelessness, lasting for at least two years in adults (one year in children or adolescents).

• person-centered therapy: developed by Carl Rogers, a humanistic approach to psychotherapy that emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in the therapeutic relationship, with the belief that clients possess the capacity for self-understanding and growth.

• personal control: the belief in one's ability to influence or control the outcomes of one's actions and experiences, which can have significant effects on motivation, coping strategies, and well-being.

• personality disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that deviate from cultural expectations and cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or interpersonal functioning.

• phobia: an anxiety disorder characterized by an irrational or excessive fear or aversion to specific objects, situations, or activities, leading to avoidance behavior and significant distress or impairment in daily life.

• positive psychology: a branch of psychology that focuses on the study of positive emotions, strengths, virtues, and factors that contribute to human flourishing, resilience, and subjective well-being.

• post-traumatic stress disorder: a mental health condition that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event, such as combat, natural disaster, or assault, characterized by intrusive memories, flashbacks, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms.

• posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion or instruction given to an individual during hypnosis that influences their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors after they emerge from the hypnotic state, often used to promote therapeutic changes or behaviors.

• posttraumatic growth: positive psychological changes, personal growth, or increased resilience experienced by individuals following a traumatic or stressful event, such as greater appreciation for life, enhanced personal strength, or a deeper sense of meaning or purpose.

• problem-focused coping: efforts to directly address and manage the underlying cause of stress or problem, by seeking solutions, taking action, or making changes to the situation or environment.

• psychoanalysis: a form of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud, based on the exploration of unconscious conflicts, memories, and desires, with the goal of bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness and resolving psychological symptoms and distress.

• psychodynamic theory: a range of psychological theories and therapeutic approaches that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships in shaping personality, behavior, and mental health.

• psychological disorder: a pattern of thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors that causes significant distress, impairment in functioning, or deviation from cultural norms, leading to disruption in daily life and relationships.

• psychoneuroimmunology: an interdisciplinary field that explores the interactions between psychological processes (such as stress, emotions) and the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, examining how these interactions influence health and disease.

• psychopharmacology: the study of the effects of drugs on mental processes, emotions, behavior, and psychological disorders, as well as the development and use of medications for the treatment of mental health conditions.

• psychosurgery: a surgical procedure that involves altering or removing specific areas of the brain to treat severe and refractory mental health conditions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder or depression.

• psychotherapy: also known as talk therapy or counseling, a form of treatment that involves therapeutic communication and interaction between a trained mental health professional (therapist) and an individual or group, aimed at alleviating psychological distress, resolving interpersonal conflicts, and promoting personal growth and well-being.

• psychotic disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, or grossly impaired reality testing, which significantly impact perception, cognition, and behavior.

• psychotropic medication: drugs that affect mental processes and behavior by altering brain function.

• rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT): focuses on identifying and disputing irrational beliefs, attitudes, and cognitive distortions that contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors.

• relative deprivation: the perception or feeling of being deprived or disadvantaged in comparison to others, leading to feelings of resentment, frustration, or injustice, especially when expectations or standards are not met.

• resilience: the capacity to adapt, bounce back, and recover from adversity, trauma, or significant life challenges, often characterized by the ability to maintain psychological well-being and functioning in the face of stressors.

• resistance: the unconscious defense mechanisms or oppositional behaviors that individuals may exhibit in therapy to avoid confronting or acknowledging painful or threatening thoughts, emotions, or memories.

• resistance stage: the body's attempt to resist or adapt to the stressor.

• rumination: a pattern of repetitive and intrusive thoughts or worries about past events, failures, or negative experiences, often accompanied by excessive self-criticism or analysis, which can exacerbate symptoms of depression or anxiety.

• schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a group of severe and chronic mental health conditions characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, behavior, and social functioning, which may include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and impaired cognition.

• schizoid personality disorder: characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency towards a solitary lifestyle, and emotional coldness.

• schizotypal personality disorder: characterized by severe social anxiety, thought disorder, paranoid ideation, derealization, and unconventional beliefs.

• self-control: also known as self-regulation, the ability to manage, restrain, or override impulses, desires, or behaviors in order to achieve long-term goals or adhere to societal norms and standards.

• Sigmund Freud: an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories of the unconscious mind, psychosexual development, defense mechanisms, and the therapeutic techniques of free association and dream analysis.

• social anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear or anxiety about social situations, interactions, or performance, leading to avoidance behaviors and impairment in social or occupational functioning.

• sociocultural perspective: an approach to psychology that examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior.

• stigma: a mark of disgrace associated with a particular condition, person, or quality.

• stress: the physiological and psychological responses to demands, challenges, or threats (stressors) that disrupt the body's equilibrium or homeostasis, leading to arousal, coping efforts, and potential health consequences.

• subjective well-being: an individual's overall evaluation and perception of their life satisfaction, happiness, and fulfillment, based on subjective judgments and experiences of positive and negative emotions.

• systematic desensitization: a form of exposure therapy that involves gradually exposing individuals to feared or anxiety-provoking stimuli or situations, while teaching relaxation techniques, to reduce anxiety and fear responses through gradual habituation.

• taijin kyofusho: culture-bound syndrome from Japan involving fear of offending or embarrassing others.

• tardive dyskinesia: side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic medications, characterized by involuntary, repetitive body movements.

• tend-and-befriend response: a stress response pattern observed primarily in women, involving nurturing behaviors (tending) and seeking social support and connection (befriending) in response to stressors, which may promote resilience and well-being.

• therapeutic alliance: the collaborative and trusting relationship between a therapist and client in therapy, characterized by mutual respect, empathy, understanding, and agreement on goals and tasks, which is essential for successful therapy outcomes.

• token economy: a behavior modification system used in therapeutic settings, schools, or institutions, in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens (such as points or tokens) that can be exchanged for rewards or privileges, promoting positive behavior change.

• transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): a non-invasive procedure used to treat depression and other mental health conditions, by delivering magnetic pulses to specific areas of the brain to modulate neural activity and alleviate symptoms.

• transference: the unconscious redirection of feelings, attitudes, or emotions from past relationships onto the therapist or therapeutic relationship, which can provide valuable insights into the client's internal dynamics and relational patterns.

• Trauma: deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can have long-term psychological effects.

• Type A Personality: a personality pattern characterized by competitiveness, ambition, impatience, hostility, and a tendency toward time urgency, often associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease and other health problems.

• Type B Personality: a personality pattern characterized by relaxation, flexibility, patience, and low levels of hostility, in contrast to the Type A Personality, which is associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease and better health outcomes.

• unconditional positive regard: an attitude of acceptance, respect, and nonjudgmental warmth toward clients in therapy, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, promoting a safe and supportive therapeutic environment for self-exploration and growth.

• virtual reality exposure therapy: a form of exposure therapy that uses virtual reality technology to simulate anxiety-provoking situations or environments, allowing individuals to confront and gradually overcome their fears in a controlled and safe setting.

• wellness: holistic approach to health that encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being.

• word salad: disorganized and incoherent speech that is a symptom of severe mental disorders like schizophrenia.