What Stresses Water Systems?

The water abundance of the Appalachian Mountains makes them a “water tower” for millions of people downstream. Yet Central Appalachian counties are home to communities facing a lack of household access to water and wastewater services, as many are without complete plumbing. Central Appalachian communities are also home to one of the highest rates of the Safe Drinking Water Act violations in this country, indicating poor water quality.

Harlan County's water infrastructure, for the most part, is old, and in desperate need of repair. Extra water pressure is needed to force water upslope across mountains, and then pressure must be reduced to avoid blowing out residential water systems and water meters. Aging infrastructure coupled with water pressure issues can also cause line breaks and water leaks. Water pollution related to the long history of deep mining in Harlan County, as well as stressors related to how water systems are governed (for example, long-term lack of funding and access to funding opportunities, increasing water costs for households (water burden) and distrust towards water governance agencies), make these water systems even more fragile, worsening ongoing distrust of tap water. 

Wastewater systems are often overwhelmed by storm water, a challenge intensified by increasing heavy rainfall events (discussed more in the section on flooding below) due to old cracked pipes, causing more water to enter treatment systems than they were designed for. The storm water gets into the wastewater pipes through cracks in the old clay pipes, causing the systems to have to treat more water than they were designed for. Because mountainous areas and rocky or compacted soils are not suitable for septic systems, some residents outside of areas with wastewater services may resort to straight-piping their sewage. Straight-piping involves using a pipe to dispose of untreated water from a residence to a nearby stream, lake, or backyard sump and can include black water (wastewater from bathrooms and toilets that contain fecal matter and urine) and graywater (wastewater from sinks, washing machines, etc.). This practice pollutes local waterways and impacts public health.

Another family of stressors is related to the changing climate patterns of the region. High precipitation rates are not new in Central Appalachia, though shifting climate patterns are causing more extreme precipitation than in the past. The region’s mountainous landscape contributes to thunderstorm systems that ‘lock’ into the ridges and cannot pass over, dumping extra rain on one side while other sides remain relatively dry. These systems are known to produce some of the largest rainfall accumulations in the world! Rainfall collects in the narrow valleys, or “hollers” (hollows) where many communities and households are located. However, extractive industries have removed some natural protections that could help decrease flood risk. Timbering and surface mining has removed trees that normally absorb rain through their roots and reduce erosion. Surface mining has contributed to silting rivers and streams, reducing their capacity to carry water away. It is no wonder that Central Appalachia is home to multiple communities that are considered at high risk of climate change impacts, including overall increases in precipitation rates, more frequent flooding, rising temperatures, and more frequent dry days (resulting in more repeated periods of intense rain with long dry spells between events). These extreme weather events are already felt in the Appalachian region and are expected to increase in the foreseeable future. These climate-related impacts are already affecting rural Appalachian community water systems, including those of Harlan County.  

Did you know that climate and water stressors can amplify one another, compounding their effects and increasing the risks compared to when they occur in isolation? 

For example, water pollution related to long histories of extractive industries interacts with climate change impacts (such as increases in flooding events), which further degrades water quality. Water pollution also interacts with challenges related to water governance issues (for example, long-term underfunding and lack of trust in water systems and water managers). By interacting with each other, these stressors are increasing each other’s effect on water systems and can cause multiplied harm to the surrounding animal and plant life, as well as to communities.  

The legacy of coal mining in Appalachia has left behind polluted waterways, with heavy metals and acid mine drainage contaminating water supplies. Climate change has intensified these issues, as increased heavy rainfall events can lead to more runoff of pollutants from abandoned mines into rivers and groundwater. Rural areas facing social and economic challenges related to the declining coal industry are unfairly affected, lacking the resources to upgrade aging infrastructure or address the contamination. These interacting factors—environmental degradation from mining, more intense climate impacts, and economic challenges — can create a cycle of impacts for Kentucky residents.

TIP: A good source for finding open-access, interactive tools on the web that can give you information on climate change, water, equity, and environmental justice is the Story Map (“Tools for climate change, water, and environmental justice”) compiled by the Rural Community Assistance Partnership, Inc. Make sure you take a good look at the EJ Screen Tool - a mapping and screening tool that provides open-access data on environmental, social, and economic indicators to highlight places that have higher environmental burdens. 

Sources

• Betsy Taylor, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

• Brett Walton. 2018. Straight Pipes Foul Kentucky’s Long Quest to Clean Its Soiled Waters. Circle of Blue. 

• Jennifer Wies, Alisha Mays, Shalean M. Collins, and Sera L. Young. 2020. “As Long As We Have the Mine, We’ll Have Water”: Exploring Water Insecurity in Appalachia. Annals of Anthropological Practice.

• L. Carter, K. Terando, and others. 2018. Chapter 19: Southeast. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

• Pacific Institute. 2023. “Climate Change and Flooding in Central Appalachia.” Issue Brief. 

• Pacific Institute and Dig Deep. 2024. Climate Change Impacts to Water and Sanitation in Frontline Communities in the United States: Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change in the United States, Part 1. Pacific Institute, Oakland, California. 

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• Tom Mueller and Stephen Gasteyer. 2021. The widespread and unjust drinking water and clean water crisis in the United States. Nature Communications. 

Water pollution is a problem because it poses a serious threat to the health of all living beings. It is no wonder that the lack of adequate water sanitation is among the leading causes of mortality in several countries around the world. 

Water pollutants from surface or underground mining, such as heavy metals (arsenic, lead, etc.), acid mine drainage, and runoff from acidic water, or from mountaintop removal and coal slurries can drastically change the pH of water, leading to fish and wildlife death. People or animals drinking contaminated water can get ill, either instantly or in the long run. Some of the common human diseases immediately created are diarrhea, or even cholera, while some of the ones created little by little are skin diseases, oral decay, or even neurological disorders and cancer. 

The effects of water pollution on human and environmental health vary depending on the types, sources, and scale of water pollution. For example, chemical pollution coming from an oil or coal slurry spillage, can have quite different effects from biological pollution coming from failed wastewater and septic systems (e.g. excessive amounts of nutrients and harmful microbes). Or, pollution coming from industrial activities (e.g. factories and power plants) can have quite different effects from pollution caused by runoff and acid rain in areas where a factory -for example- is releasing carbon monoxide, heavy metals, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, or “particulate matter” (small particles), and can be discharging wastewater containing harmful chemical pollutants) in the surrounding water bodies (rivers, laces, etc). affecting both air, soil and water. 

The effects of water pollution also depend on access to knowledge, and the actual funding and available technology for dealing with water pollution. Access to resources, such as funding and technology, is not the same for all water systems in the U.S.

Water pollutants also interact with temperature, precipitation, and relative salt content, making water more toxic, or distributing it into wider regions and affecting more and more people, animals, and plants. Extreme weather events, such as prolonged drought, can increase the toxicity of contaminants, while flooding can distribute contaminants (e.g. heavy metals, or ‘forever - chemicals’) into wider regions, increasing the rates of water pollution.

Did you know that regulatory agencies charged with protecting the environment and ensuring clean and safe water, identify two main categories of pollution? These are; point-source pollution (think the factory, or the oil spill) and nonpoint-source pollution (think runoff and acid rain). 

Sources 

• Bullington D. (2024). "An Elementary Look at Water Pollution". In Drinking Water. RCAP, June 24. 

• Najeeb S. (2021), "Ten Major Harmful Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health". In Envirocivil, Oct. 13. 

• National Geographic Education. “Point Source and Nonpoint Sources of Pollution”. 

There are many types of water pollution depending on which part of the water body is polluted (underground, or surface water), or what has caused (or is causing) water pollution. Water pollutants can be organic or inorganic, highly or less toxic, and can contaminate underground or surface water. They can persist and be difficult to treat or can be short-lived and easy to treat, given the available technology. In Harlan County, the most commonly found types of water pollution –in terms of which part of the water body is polluted and what is causing water pollution– are;

Groundwater pollution: A key source of groundwater pollution comes from industrial activities, such as coal mining and industrial agriculture. Often, water pollution is caused by abandoned industrial equipment leaching slowly into the groundwater, or by the overuse of fertilizers and pesticides applied to farmland. Groundwater pollution can also be caused by waste from landfills,  and untreated waste from septic tanks and sewage systems. Once contaminated, groundwater can be difficult or impossible to remediate. Harlan County has areas with moderate to high exposure to groundwater pollution. 

Surface water pollution: Surface streams, the major source of Kentucky's water supply, are primarily sustained by groundwater discharge from adjacent aquifers. Surface water is vulnerable to contamination when the surface of land is contaminated due to various human activities. Surface water pollution can occur persistently (e.g. industries dumping waste directly or indirectly into waterways), but can also occur suddenly, as an accident. Surface water pollution also occurs as a result of extreme weather events, such as flooding, as excessive amounts of water pick up debris, chemicals, or other water contaminants from surface activities and pour them into waterways. 

Both surface and underground water bodies of Harlan County face chemical pollution, microbiological and suspended matter pollution, oxygen depletion and thermal pollution. 

Even though water contamination has become a major environmental issue for more than thirty years now, there is surprisingly little information available on groundwater as well as surface water quality. The lack of information regarding surface and groundwater makes it harder for community members to understand “what is in their water” especially when it comes to certain source water or groundwater that residents and water systems depend on. This lack of information can also impact certain policies or plans around how to help certain communities.  A case in point is the  ‘forever chemicals’, which have been around for too long. Yet, their dire effects are only recently realized (and much more data collection and research remains to be done). As a result, until recently, EPA was not regulating any of these ‘forever chemicals’. 

See also, What are the 'forever chemicals' and why are they relevant to drinking water and wastewater systems?

Sources

• Betsy Taylor, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

• Atlas Scientific, “Types of Water Pollution”, June 28, 2022. 

• Carey D. and Stickney J.F. (2005). “Groundwater Resources of Harlan County, Kentucky”. In Cobb J.C., Ground-Water Resources in Kentucky.  County Report 48, Series XII. University of Kentucky and Kentucky Geological Survey. 

Across the U.S., there are many different contaminants present in water systems. It is important to distinguish between the different types of water pollution, because if sanitation measures are to be effective, they need to be tailored to the specific contaminants and  the source or sources of water pollution associated with them. 

To understand these specific pollution risks facing Harlan County’s water sources, it is important to take into account the development pathway of this county and in the Appalachian region;  the historical pathway that led to what is current. Some surface activities have been contaminating soil and water with particular water pollutants. Scientific research is already associating specific pollutants with specific health and environmental risks, which will need to be taken into account when planning for sanitation measures.

In regulatory policies and sanitation measures, it is also crucial to be tailored to the funding opportunities and treatment technologies, which are actually available to Cities, Water Districts or Magistrates.

To be aware of the different types of water pollution is to ‘keep an eye’ on what could make water undrinkable, or even dangerous to the ecosystem and for public health; even when no one is aware of it, or no one is talking about it. Remember, even if water looks clean, it doesn't always mean that it is clean!  

Source

• National Geographic Education, “What is Water Pollution” (video). In the Earth's Freshwater Educator Guide

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tests drinking water for:

• Coliform (E-Coli)/Microbial contaminants

• Lead and Copper

• Chemical and Radiological contaminants (e.g. trichloroethane, dichloroethylene, aluminum, arsenic, asbestos, barium, calcium, chloride, endrin, fluoride, foaming agents, manganese, mercure, nitrate, nitrite, sodium, zinc among many others. For an example of what a small rural community water system in Harlan County gets tested for click here. 

To be in compliance, a water system must have regular test results produced to show the absence of these contaminants or the levels that are safe for human consumption. These test results are accessible to the public.

Since 2002, water systems have been required to report levels of Disinfection Byporducts (DBPs). 

Also see, Where do I get information about the water quality of my water system?

What rules apply to testing and providing clean water?

Source

• Kentucky Infrastructure Authority, Drinking Water Branch, Water Systems in Harlan County. 

Contaminants entering Harlan County’s drinking water systems can be coming from various activities. These include:

Coal mining, logging, and industrial agriculture

• Acid mine drainage, which is a toxic combination of acidic water and heavy metals that can flow from abandoned or active mines and into streams.  

• Organic solvents, petroleum products, and heavy metals from disposal sites or storage facilities can migrate into aquifers. 

• Logging activity can lead to increased sediment and dissolved oxygen depletion. It can also change the shape of a stream.

• Pesticides and fertilizers can be carried into lakes and streams by rainfall runoff or snowmelt or can percolate into aquifers. 

Human and animal waste

• Human wastes from sewage and septic systems can carry harmful microbes into drinking water sources.

• Wastes from animal feedlots and wildlife can as well. 

• Major contaminants include Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and E. coli.

Treatment and distribution

• While treatment can remove many contaminants, it can also leave behind byproducts. These are known as “disinfection byproducts” (DBP’s), such as trihalomethanes (THMs), which may be harmful. 

• Water can also become contaminated after it enters the distribution system, from a breach in the piping system or from corrosion of plumbing materials made from lead or copper.

Polluted groundwater: when groundwater and underground aquifers are polluted with high levels of certain contaminants, then drinking water, whose source water is fed by the polluted groundwater, can be unsuitable for human and animal consumption. Groundwater can also be contaminated by surface water; as groundwater travels through rock and soil, it filters out the naturally occurring contaminants, which are present underground (e.g. iron, magnesium, etc.), making water clean and safe to drink. But, if there is surface pollution -for example heavy metals, or radionuclides- then groundwater can pick up these pollutants as they travel from the surface to underground waterways and aquifers. 

Sources

• EPA, Environments and Contaminants - Drinking Water Contaminants

• EPA, How EPA Regulates Drinking Water Contaminants 

• EPA, Drinking Water

“Forever chemicals” could refer generally to all chemicals that persist on land or in water without breaking down. But these days, ‘forever chemicals’ refers to the chemicals commonly referred to as PFAS and PFOA. These chemicals have been used for decades in many consumer products designed for water resistance or stain resistance and many other purposes. Because they don’t adhere or stick to things (think teflon), they move easily into water. The health risks associated with these chemicals are still being discovered and evaluated. 

EPA is continuing to collect data on PFAS in sewage and sewage sludge, but only now is starting to measure and regulate these chemicals in drinking water. Monitoring for these chemicals will be expensive and using carbon filtration to treat drinking water will be very expensive (and require frequent recharge of the carbon filters). 

In addition to drinking water, there are significant concerns about PFAS in sewage sludge (also called biosolids), which is often spread on the land for disposal or to fertilize crops, and can even be made into commercial products sold at home and garden centers. 

Sources

• EPA, Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).

• —, Increasing Our Understanding of the Health Risks from PFAS and How to Address Them

• —, Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Biosolids

• —, Sewage Sludge Surve

Flooding can cause damages to water infrastructure and can make their repair difficult, leaving residents without clean water. Sometimes this can be catastrophic, like in July 2022 when Eastern Kentucky experienced nearly 12 inches of rain over five days, with 8 inches pouring down in just 24 hours, triggering a 1-in-1,000-year event. The extreme flooding caused widespread devastation, severely impacting rural water systems. Three wastewater treatment plants became unable to operate, and several others were significantly damaged due to flooding, mudslides, rockslides, and water and power outages. As a result, 18,000 households lost access to water, while another 45,600 were placed under boil water advisories.

Besides power and water outages, flooding events may overload water systems by introducing large amounts of stormwater and wastewater into drinking water systems and water sources, contaminating community water systems and severely compromising water quality. Flooding events may be caused by storms with high winds, which further damage power lines, roofs, and trees.

Flooding poses a particular risk to private wells since these are also vulnerable to water contamination caused by the spread of water pollutants (e.g., chemical pollutants related to industry or agriculture). In areas that have long legacies of resource extraction, flooding poses an increased risk of landslides and sludge slurries because those activities can leave land less stable. Landslides and instability of coal slurry ponds threaten roads, houses, schools, and businesses as well as buried gas lines, electrical lines, water and wastewater pipes, and poles that carry power lines. 

Extreme precipitation events are expected to increase in Central Appalachia as climate change accelerates. According to the National Climate Assessment, the Southeast region, which includes Kentucky, has seen a rise in heavy rainfall events. Between 1958 and 2016, the Southeast region has experienced a 37% increase in the total precipitation during the most intense rainfall events. While an overall increase in total precipitation is projected in Central Appalachia, the rainfall is expected to come from more heavy rainfall events, especially in the spring, with less rainfall in the summer and fall (see more about drought impacts below). 

The distribution of flood risks in the Southeast is uneven and unjust, influenced by both climate and non-climate stressors. Existing social and economic challenges are making the climate related stressors worse, resulting in more frequent flooding in the Southeast’s most at-risk counties.

Source

• American Water Works Association. 2022. “Utilities helping utilities” bring water heroes to eastern Kentucky flood cleanup. American Water Works Association Connections.

• Betsy Taylor, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

• E.A. Payton, A.O. Pinson, T. Asefa, and others. 2023. Chapter 4 Water. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• J.S. Hoffman, S.G. McNulty, C. Brown, and others. 2023. Chapter 22: Southeast. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• K. Marvel, W. Su, S. Aarons, and others. 2023. Chapter 2 Climate Trends. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• Kenneth Kunkel, Thomas Karl, Michael Squires, Xungang Yin, Steve Stegall, David Easterling. 2020. Precipitation Extremes: Trends and Relationships with Average Precipitation and Precipitable Water in the Contiguous United States. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 

• L. Carter, K. Terando, and others. 2018. Chapter 19: Southeast. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• Sam Decoste. 2023. Tragedy in the Mountains: Bridges, water systems still under repair after 2022 eastern Kentucky flooding. WOWK 13 News. 

Wastewater systems are designed to handle a certain amount of water. Extreme rain causes large additional amounts of stormwater to flow into the wastewater system, which can overwhelm the capability of the plant to treat the water. These sudden huge amounts of water can cause wastewater treatment systems to become backed up and overflow. Typically this overflow then flows into local waterways and can contaminate surface water.

In contrast to wastewater, stormwater typically does not get treated.  As stormwater hits large areas of hard surface, it runs off towards gutters through stormwater pipes, carrying pollutants from extractive activities (such as coal mining or fracking), industrial agriculture, and failed wastewater and septic systems directly into streams, rivers, and lakes . Because of this, extreme rainfall can cause stormwater containing bacteria, chemicals, and organic matter to enter local waterways. 

These challenges are expected to increase as intense rainfall events, described above, become more frequent and severe due to climate change.

Sources

• https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-stormwater-program

• New Zealand Water & Wastewater Association .2006. Keep it Clean. Preventing Stormwater Pollution.  

• E. Euripidou and V. Murray. 2004. Public Health Impacts of Floods and Chemical Contamination. Journal of Public Health. 

• E.A. Payton, A.O. Pinson, T. Asefa, and others. 2023. Chapter 4 Water. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• L. Carter, K. Terando, and others. 2018. Chapter 19: Southeast. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• US Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. NPDES Stormwater Program. 

• US Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Urbanization - Stormwater Runoff. 

• US Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. Climate Adaptation and Stormwater Runoff. 

Kentucky is considered to be one of the most water-rich states, however, there have been three severe drought periods in the last 30 years that have affected the state of Kentucky: 1999-2000, 2007-2008, and 2012. Drought can unevenly affect mountain areas as well, because there are “microclimates” throughout the mountains, which vary depending on exposure to sunlight, type of soil, rockiness, and density of the forest cover.

Drought impacts rural water systems in several ways, including reduced snowpack and runoff, increased chance of wildfires, increased evaporation, and more reliance on groundwater which can decrease the quality and availability of groundwater supply. Mountain snowpack is an important natural water reservoir, recharging water systems as it lays on the ground and seeps in gradually, leading to less runoff. Yet climate change models indicate a snowpack decline in the future by 20%-30% by the 2050s and 40%-60% by the 2100s. In Central Appalachia specifically, winter snowpack is expected to decline by 20-50% by the end of the century. The loss of snowpack will reduce water availability and change its timing for downstream communities.  

The Southeastern U.S. is more drought prone than other parts of the Eastern U.S. due to higher rates of evapotranspiration, which are expected to increase as climate change continues to produce warmer temperatures. “Flash droughts,” which refer to the rapid onset of drought conditions in an area, are becoming more common in Kentucky. For example, in 2019 many counties in Kentucky shifted from no drought conditions to extreme drought within the span of only 2 months. As mentioned above, shifting precipitation patterns due to climate change will result in increased overall precipitation in Central Appalachia, with more intense and concentrated rainfall events in the spring, and less rainfall in the summer and fall. Combined with mean annual temperature increases of up to 8 degrees Fahrenheit and more extreme heat events by the end of the century in Central Appalachia, these climate shifts are leading to “weather whiplash” between wet and dry events. More late season droughts in the state are expected as climate change accelerates.

One of the most widely felt effects of drought on water systems is the decline of water quantity, including both surface water and groundwater. Low water volume can stress pumps and even lead to pumps not working. In Evarts, for example, the wildfires and high winds during a period of drought in 2023 caused pumps to stop pumping water to tanks due to electrical outages.  Low tank volume, coupled with the decline of groundwater, led to back-to-back boil water advisories and required pumping water from alternate sources. 

Drought can also negatively impact water quality. For example, increased groundwater pumping from wells during a drought can pull shallow, contaminated groundwater further down to depths that are typically used for public drinking water supply. 

As the Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan outlines, there is a time-lag between lack of rain and lowering of water levels. So, by the time this is noticed, there may already have been a considerable lack of rain, and a lack of moisture in soils thereafter, which may already be impacting people, animals, and plants. Scientists have defined several types of drought to help with drought monitoring and understand their impacts. Types of drought as defined by the National Integrated Drought Information System include: 

• Meteorological: when dry weather patterns dominate an area.

• Hydrological: when low water supply becomes evident in the water system.

• Agricultural: When crops become affected by drought.

• Socioeconomic: When the supply and demand of various commodities is affected by drought.

• Ecological: When natural ecosystems are affected by drought.

Depending on the duration, spread, and severity of a drought and its effects, there are different levels of drought classifications. For example, the U.S. Drought Monitor program classifies drought into 5 categories ranging from D0 (abnormally dry) to D4 (exceptional drought). In Kentucky, there are also five levels of drought, as defined by the Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan:

• Level 1 Drought: Signifies that the state has officially designated a prolonged dry period as a drought.

• Level 2 Drought: Indicates that drought impacts, some severe, are being observed.

• Level 3 Drought: During this stage of drought it is expected that drought impacts will be widespread and severe and develop into emergencies if drought conditions are not addressed.

• Water Shortage Watch: Indicates a potential for water shortages to develop. The watch is intended to encourage increased awareness by water supply managers in an area and help local governments communicate the severity of a drought situation to affected customers.

• Water Shortage Warning: Indicates that a critical water shortage is at hand. A warning may also be issued for an area in which one or more systems have entered the emergency phase of a local water shortage response plan.

Did you know that in September 2024 a Level 1 Drought was declared for all Kentucky counties? The drought impacted soil moisture, agricultural water needs, and increased wildfire risk across the state.

Tip: the Division of Water has developed the Kentucky Drought Viewer. This is an interactive map that displays drought conditions and water shortage declarations issued by the Commonwealth of Kentucky. 

Sources 

• Energy and Environment Cabinet, KY Drought Mitigation and Response Advisory Council (2008), Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan.

• Erica Siirila-Woodburn, Alan Rhoades, Benjamin Hathett, and others. 2021. A low to no-snow future and its impacts on water resources in the western United States. Nature Reviews Earth and Environment. 

• J.S. Hoffman, S.G. McNulty, C. Brown, and others. 2023. Chapter 22: Southeast. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• K. Marvel, W. Su, S. Aarons, and others. 2023. Chapter 2 Climate Trends. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• L. Carter, K. Terando, and others. 2018. Chapter 19: Southeast In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

• Megan Duzmal. 2024. All counties in Kentucky are now in a drought. WYMT Mountain News.

• Megan Schargorodski. 2022. Kentucky’s Changing Climate. Kentucky Climate Center. 

• National Integrated Drought Information System, Drought Basics.

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• Shane Holinde. 2023. Flash Droughts and Fall. Kentucky Climate Center. 

• Team Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet, Drought: Tracking, Monitoring and Evaluation. 

• —, Kentucky Drought and Climate Conditions (story-map).

• Zeno F. Levy, Bryant C. Jurgens, Karen R. Burow, and others. 2021. Critical Aquifer Overdraft Accelerates Degradation of Groundwater Quality in California’s Central Valley During Drought. Geophysical Research Letters. 

Low temperatures can freeze water in pipes causing those pipes to burst. This can cause damage to water supply and sanitation systems, cutting off access for the people served by those systems. Ice storms often cause power outages, impacting water treatment plants, especially if they do not have an adequate backup generator. When water pipes are ruptured, systems can also experience pressure loss, which in turn puts the distribution system at risk of contamination, making water unsafe. Ice and slush can also block intake valves for systems that use surface water. 

Although climate change is reducing the overall number of cold days in the United States, it is also driving more extreme shifts in temperature. This includes severe cold events in mid-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere, which includes Central Appalachia. The National Climate Assessment found that the southeastern U.S. experienced 3 additional days of cold extremes (less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit) between 2002-2021 compared to 1901-1960. It may seem like a contradiction for global warming to bring more extreme cold. However, changes in the Arctic due to climate change are likely an important driver of a chain of events that involve “stratospheric polar vortex disruption,” which ultimately can result in extreme cold events in regions like Central Appalachia.

Small water systems such as the ones serving Harlan County rural communities can face greater challenges coming back online after being disrupted by extreme cold due to aging infrastructure, reduced capacity, less staff, and fewer financial resources, as they have a smaller customer base. 

For example, in 2024 Martin County, Kentucky, faced extreme freezing temperatures that resulted in water outages, which intensified existing water infrastructure and water affordability challenges in the county. Many residents went days without access to water and sanitation.

Did you know  that FEMA's National Risk Index shows the relative risk and annual loss of ice storms and other natural hazards? You and your community can stay informed by exploring FEMA's National Risk Index Map here.

Sources

• Geraldine Torrellas. 2024. Martin County water struggles: ‘System is broken and has been for over 20 years.’ Spectrum News 1.

• Judah Cohen, Laurie Angel, Mathew Barlow, Chaim I. Garfinkel, Ian White. 2021. Linking Arctic variability and change with extreme winter weather in the United States. Science. 

• K. Marvel, W. Su, R. Delgado, and others. 2023. Chapter 2 Climate Trends. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• Pacific Institute and DigDeep (2024). Climate Change Impacts to Water and Sanitation for Frontline Communities in the United States: Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change in the US Series, Part 1. Pacific Institute, Oakland, CA.

• Betsy Taylor, et al (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California. 

The U.S. is experiencing more frequent, longer, and more powerful extreme heat events, or heatwaves, which are generally defined as a period of abnormally hot weather lasting between 2 days to months. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security broadly defines extreme heat as a minimum of 2 to 3 days of temperatures of approximately 90 degrees Fahrenheit. The increase in intensity and frequency of extreme heat is directly tied to climate change. Average annual air temperatures have risen in the continental United States by almost 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit since 1970. 

Across the nation, the heatwave season has extended from around 40 days to approximately 70 days with the average number of heatwaves doubling since the 1980s. Extreme heat events are expected to continue increasing in magnitude and frequency every decade. In Central Appalachia, there are projected to be 20-30 more extremely hot days (greater than 95 degrees Fahrenheit) and multi-day heatwaves are expected to increase by 3 to 6 days by the end of the century. 

Extreme heat events impact rural water systems and water quality in several ways. For example, extreme heat can contribute to toxic algal blooms (or harmful algal blooms  (HABs)), endangering drinking water quality and making it unsafe for people to come into contact with water bodies for recreation. 

Extreme heat is often accompanied by drought, and can also increase demand for water, worsening water sufficiency problems created by long periods of drought. In addition, when coupled with long legacies of environmental and economic injustices, extreme heat waves can cause unjust health impacts to regions and populations already experiencing water inequalities; that is, unequal access to clean, safe, and affordable water and wastewater services. For instance, elderly, very young, or pregnant people are often at risk for problems relating to extreme heat. Individuals experiencing homelessness also face heightened risks of dehydration or heat-related illnesses due to the lack of reliable water access and shelter. 

See also, What if the water in a lake or reservoir looks green or blue?

Source

• Arash Zamyadi, Sherri L. Macleod, Yan Fan, and others. 2012. Toxic cyanobacterial breakthrough and accumulation in a drinking water plant: A monitoring and treatment challenge. Water Research. 

• Hans W. Paerl and Jef Huisman. 2009. Climate change: a catalyst for global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms. Environmental Microbiology Reports. 

• HUD Exchange. 2024. Protecting People Experiencing Homelessness from Extreme Heat and Other Climate Risks. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 

• K. Marvel, W. Su, R. Delgado, and others. 2023. Chapter 2 Climate Trends. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• Taylor, Betsy, et all (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

• U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 2024. Extreme Heat.

• U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2023. US Global Change Research Platform: Heat Waves. 

• Vikki Thompson, Alan T. Kennedy-Asser, Emily Vosper and others. 2022. The 2021 western North America heat wave among the most extreme events ever recorded globally. Science Advances.

Drought, especially when combined with higher temperatures and high winds, contributes to increased wildfire danger. As the flammability of plant life caused by prolonged periods of drought is increased, the risk of wildfires also increases. Wildfires can have adverse effects on water quality and your community water system. For example, a wildfire can melt and rupture water pipes and meters. It can also damage water intake systems, or water treatment systems. 

Wildfires can make drinking water unsafe. Damaged pipes and pressure loss can lead to toxic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) entering the water system.  Soil erosion and released contaminants from the fire that usually follow a fire pollute water bodies (such as rivers and reservoirs), wells and springs located downstream of fire-impacted forested land. Solids, nutrients, and heavy metals become more concentrated in affected water bodies.  Potentially harmful algae blooms can also occur. 

The risk of wildfire is increasing in size, scale, and frequency in the United States due to a combination of climate-related factors including decreasing snowpack and snowmelt, changing temperatures and precipitation patterns, more severe, hot, and persistent droughts,  increasing wind speeds, and increasing tree deaths in forests. In the Southeastern U.S., changing fire regimes, driven by rising temperatures and prolonged droughts, are expected to significantly impact natural systems by increasing wildfire risk in the future. On average, the annual area burned by lightning-ignited wildfire is projected to increase by a minimum of 30% by 2060 in the Southeast. As an example, the combination of high temperatures, increased accumulation of plant material on the forest floors, and a four-month drought in the fall of 2016 led to 21 wildfires in Southern Appalachia (NC, SC, GA, and TN). These wildfires negatively impacted water quality in the region by increasing suspended solids and nitrates in the waters of burned watersheds.

Sources

• G.M. Domke, C.J. Fettig, A.S. Marsh, and others. 2023. Chapter 7 Forests. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• J.M. Vose, D.L. Peterson, G.M. Domke, and others. Chapter 6 Forests. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• J.S. Hoffman, S.G. McNulty, C. Brown, and others. 2023. Chapter 22: Southeast. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• L. Carter, K. Terando, and others. 2018. Chapter 19: Southeast In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

• Pacific Institute and DigDeep (2024). Climate Change Impacts to Water and Sanitation for Frontline Communities in the United States: Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change in the United States, Part 1. 

• Patricia Butler, Louis Iverson, and others. 2015. Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

• Peter V. Cladwell, Katherine J. Elliot, Ning Liu, and others. 2020. Watershed-scale vegetation, water quantity, and water quality responses to wildfire in southern Appalachian mountain region, United States. Wildfire and Hydrological Processes. 

• Taylor, Betsy, et all (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

• Zachary A. Holden, Alan Swanson, Charles H. Luce, and others. 2018. Decreasing fire season precipitation increased recent western US forest wildfire activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The combined impacts of changes in climate and water pollution are yet to be fully understood. Floodwaters and wildfires can add toxic chemicals into the water supply. With less water available during droughts, the concentration of pollutants in water supplies can increase. With the evaporation of water in extreme heat events, drought, and wildfires, chemicals already in the water supply may also become more concentrated. Raised surface water temperatures from extreme heat and drought may cause a die-off of sensitive wildlife species and contribute to algal blooms, which further decrease available oxygen in the water. 

As described in the other sections, climate change is intensifying these water quality impacts. It is certain that the coupling of water pollution and extreme weather events or other slow occurring water disasters can have a variety of serious consequences. These consequences can range from disrupting food chains to threatening the lives of humans, plants, and animals.

Sources:

• E.A. Payton, A.O. Pinson, T. Asefa, and others. 2023. Chapter 4 Water. In: Fifth National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• Hans W. Paerl and Jef Huisman. 2009. Climate change: a catalyst for global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms. Environmental Microbiology Reports. 

• J.M. Vose, D.L. Peterson, G.M. Domke, and others. Chapter 6 Forests. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA.

• Zeno F. Levy, Bryant C. Jurgens, Karen R. Burow, and others. 2021. Critical Aquifer Overdraft Accelerates Degradation of Groundwater Quality in California’s Central Valley During Drought. Geophysical Research Letters.