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The most documented usage of social media by political actors in India is as a platform to showcase their achievements and attract more voters and supporters by live streaming rallies and speeches instead of relying on traditional news sources and agencies, hence connecting more directly with their viewers and supporters (The Economic Times, 2024; Michigan New, 2024). However, there is a dark underbelly to political campaigning that is less about politics and more about social and religious identities, which has especially surfaced in the light of the Bharatiya Janata Party’s reliance on Hindu nationalism as a vehicle to guarantee unprecedented levels of electoral success in the 2014 and 2019 elections. Hindu nationalists and supremacists are taking to social media as an avenue to promote Hindutva (“Hinduness”) ideology due to the exceptional and even transnational reach that online spaces offer, and the implications of this ideology’s expansion and entrenchment are dangerous, evidenced by Policy Exchange, one of the UK’s leading think tanks, having identified Hindutva as the 9th most important extremist threat worldwide (Sharma, 2024; Gilligan & Stott, 2025). With its enduring presence in the Indian socio-political psyche, it is increasingly becoming a factor in deepening communalism, defined for the purposes of this study as "loyalty to a sociopolitical grouping based on religious or ethnic affiliation" (Merriam-Webster, n.d.), across the country.
Supporters post memes, caricatures and hateful comments maligning their predetermined opponents, with the situation aggravated by individuals of targeted communities often reciprocating such actions online. This is a phenomenon that is becoming increasingly of interest to researchers worldwide due to the far-right extremism implicit in this ideology, which in addition threatens the safety of minorities it deems harmful, with Indian Muslims bearing the brunt of attacks (Ahmad, February 12, 2025). As a member of an Indian minority myself, this was a trend that was both fascinating and concerning and thereby demanded a closer look with the knowledge and skills I had developed over the course of completing the certificate. In this research project, I will showcase how social media is being weaponized by various actors to aggravate existing societal divides and thereby drive political identity and participation across India.
According to DataReportal, India has the highest number of Instagram users in the world, with 414 million Indians online as of January 2025, almost a third of the entire Indian population (Kemp, 2024). Add to that the fact that Instagram is used across age groups and across regions within India, and also that there are several million Indians such as myself who are Indian expatriates, which means that a significant portion of literate Indians are likely online and using platforms like Instagram (DataReportal, n.d.). All these reasons, in addition to pertaining to the scope of this project, are why I have chosen to explore content from Instagram exclusively. Note that the findings of this project even with its limited scope can be roughly transposed to other platforms such as Facebook and YouTube since they are also widely used across India.
The near-constant stream of polarizing content in India’s vast social media spaces has significant real-world consequences - hence the outcomes - that revolve around deepening communal divisions and increasing the risk of violence. For one, hateful online rhetoric often translates into real-world communal clashes. In several instances, social media-fueled misinformation and inflammatory content have triggered riots and mob violence. For example, viral posts on Facebook and WhatsApp were linked to the 2020 Delhi riots, which resulted in over 50 deaths. Secondly, constant exposure to hateful content reinforces biases and can push individuals toward political polarization and radical ideologies (Mahapatra & Plagemann, 2019). Extremist groups exploit online platforms to recruit followers, turning digital hatred into real-world extremist activities. This is applicable to both Hindu nationalists as well as Islamic fundamentalists who retaliate in online spaces. In addition, online hate speech is politically motivated here, with parties like the BJP using religious divisions to consolidate voter bases. Social media campaigns spreading communal propaganda influence public opinion and elections, fostering further mistrust between communities. Next, false narratives—such as claims of demographic threats, "love jihad," or temple demolitions—circulate widely, creating unnecessary panic and suspicion among communities (Ahmad, February 8, 2025). This deepens societal fractures and reduces trust in mainstream news sources, causing misled individuals to find refuge in biased sources often run by ideologically-motivated parties. Additionally, the rise of hate speech forces governments and social media platforms to impose stricter content moderation policies. However, these measures are often unevenly applied, sometimes leading to allegations of bias and selective censorship. This creates a conflict between maintaining free speech and preventing communal discord.
On the international scale, the frequent communal tensions fueled by online hate damage India’s global reputation as a secular democracy (Barman, 2024). Reports of religious intolerance impact diplomatic relations and foreign investments, affecting the country’s socio-economic progress. Lastly, on the whole, the constant vilification of religious groups online erodes the fabric of social harmony in India. Friends, colleagues, and even families find themselves divided over communal narratives, making coexistence increasingly fragile. The constant exposure to hateful content increases stress, fear, and anxiety among targeted communities. Many Muslims and Hindus, in addition to targeted minorities, feel unsafe in digital spaces, which affects their sense of security in real life as well. The unchecked spread of communal hate online has dire consequences, from real-world violence to long-term societal divisions. Addressing this issue requires stricter content moderation, digital literacy programs, and active efforts to promote interfaith dialogue. Without intervention, the growing hostility risks destabilizing India’s social and political landscape further.
However, this dire situation is not without solutions, which the government is already working towards. Addressing online hate speech and propaganda in India requires legal reforms, platform accountability, digital literacy, and institutional oversight. Following the Supreme Court's 2015 decision to strike down Section 66A of the Information Technology Act, 2000, due to its vagueness and potential to infringe on free speech, there is a need to revise and strengthen legal provisions to effectively address online hate speech while safeguarding constitutional rights (India Code, n.d.). In addition, the Law Committee headed by T.K. Viswanathan has proposed several measures, including appointing cybercrime coordinators in all states and establishing district-level cybercrime cells, to enhance the legal framework against cybercrimes related to hate speech (Singh, 2018). Social media platforms must ensure transparency in content moderation, modify algorithms that amplify harmful content, and introduce regulatory oversight. Promoting digital literacy can help users critically assess online information, reducing the spread of misinformation. Establishing an independent regulatory body under parliamentary oversight can ensure balanced content moderation while safeguarding free speech, all while minimizing influence by dominant party ideologies (Shah, 2024). By integrating these measures, India can curb online hate speech and misinformation while preserving democratic discourse, thereby minimizing the divisive and destructive effects of communalism.
Sources
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Singh, V. (2018, March 20). Centre plans law on online hate speech. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-moves-for-law-on-online-abuse/article23295440.ece
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