Causes of the Civil War

Since the American Revolution, long before the idea of a Civil War or Southern secession the different regions (sectionalism) in America already had their differences, much of it based on the morality of slavery, but there were also issues of state's rights and arguments over tariffs. Southern states believed they had the 'state's right' to nullify (or cancel) federal laws such as tariffs (taxes on imports/foreign goods). But to see the causes leading up to the Civil War it helps to go back to the very beginning of the problem: slavery. The claim that the war was over states rights and tariffs has been debunked as Confederate propaganda and was responsible for erecting the numerous Confederate monuments and revisionist history taught in the South for a full century after the end of the war. Have you noticed the statue toppling trend?

The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution

Slavery had been a hot-button issue from the beginning of American history. Thomas Jefferson, in 1787 drafted the Northwest Ordinance, which outlawed slavery in  the new “Northwest Territory” in what is now the Great Lakes region of the Midwest. This began the century-long debate on the issue, and in the same year (1787) the United States' Constitution was signed at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, which included 3 brancahes of government and the 3/5ths Compromise, a clause that counted slaves as 3/5ths of a person for the purposes of proportional representation in the House of Representatives (Congress). The system of slavery was preserved in the South because our republican form of government allowed for federalism, and therefore Southern states such as Texas were legally able to uphold the institution. 

The first political confrontation over slavery in the United States occurred in 1820. As the United States expanded West they had to face the question of whether new territories would allow slavery or not. Missouri applied for admission to the Union as a slave state. The admission of Missouri would upset the balance of power in the Senate where at the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states. Senator Henry Clay proposed a compromise called the Missouri Compromise. In 1820, he suggested that Missouri enter as a slave state and Maine as a free state to keep the balance of power. Congress also drew an imaginary line across the Louisiana Purchase at 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude called the Mason-Dixon Line. North of the line would be free states (with the exception of Missouri), and south of the line would be slave states. 

Nat Turner's Rebellion (also known as the Southampton Insurrection) was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831. Led by Nat Turner, rebel slaves killed from 55 to 65 people, at least 51 being white. The rebellion was put down within a few days and officially ended after Nat Turner was captured and killed. There was widespread fear in the aftermath of the rebellion, and white militias organized in retaliation against the slaves. The state executed 56 slaves accused of being part of the rebellion. In the frenzy, many non-participant slaves were punished. Approximately 120 slaves and free African Americans were murdered by militias and mobs in the area. Across the South, state legislatures passed new laws prohibiting education of slaves and free black people, restricting rights of assembly and other civil rights for free black people, and requiring white ministers to be present at all worship services.

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In 1850, California applied for admission as a free state. Once again, the balance of power in the Senate was threatened. The South did not want to give the North a majority in the Senate. They also feared that more free states would be carved from the Mexican Cession. Members of Congress agreed upon the Compromise of 1850. Once again, Henry Clay, the “Great Compromiser,” pleaded for compromise. John C. Calhoun, a senator of South Carolina stated the South would not compromise. He demanded that slavery be allowed in the western territories and that there be a tough fugitive-slave law. Daniel Webster of Maine offered a solution to keep the Union together. The Compromise of 1850 had four parts: 1) California entered as a free state. 2) The rest of the Mexican cession was divided into New Mexico and Utah. In each state, voters would decide the issue of slavery. 3) Slave trade was ended in Washington D.C. 4) A strict new fugitive-slave law was passed. The Fugitive Slave Law required that all citizens were obligated to return runaway slaves. People who helped slaves escape would be jailed and fined. The law enraged Northerners because it made them feel a part of the slave system that they considered a moral abomination (Second Great Awakening). People like Harriet Tubman were involved with the Underground Railroad worked to subvert the law.

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In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin. This novel told of the story of Uncle Tom, an enslaved African American, and his cruel master, Simon Legree. In the novel, Stowe wrote of the evils and cruelty of slavery. While it is argued whether the book was a true portrayal of slavery, the novel still had an enormous influence. The book sold more than 300,000 copies, was published in many languages, and was made into a play. It also helped change the way many Northerners felt about slavery. Slavery was now not only a political problem but a moral problem.

In 1854, Stephen Douglas introduced a bill to help solve the problem of slavery in the new Nebraska territory. He proposed that Nebraska be divided into two territories — Kansas and Nebraska. The settlers of the new territories would decide whether they would be slave or free. This proposal set off a storm of controversy because it effectively undid - or nullified - the Missouri Compromise. Southerners supported the act, while Northerners felt it was a betrayal. The Act set off bitter violence in the Kansas territory. More than 200 people died over the issue of slavery. The area became known as Bleeding Kansas. Anti- and pro-slavery forces set up rival governments. The town of Lawrence was destroyed by pro-slavery forces. In revenge, John Brown and a small group killed five pro-slavery supporters in the middle of the night.

In 1857, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark ruling in the Dred Scott case. Dred Scott was a slave who applied for freedom. He claimed that because his master had taken him to the free territories of Illinois and Wisconsin, he should be free. The court ruled that because Dred Scott was not considered a citizen, but property, he could not file a lawsuit. The Court also ruled that Congress had no power to decide the issue of slavery in the territories. This meant that slavery was legal in all the territories and the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.

In 1859, John Brown and a group of followers organized a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, a federal arsenal. Brown hoped that slaves would come to the arsenal and he would then lead a massive slave uprising. It was John Brown’s belief that slavery could be ended only through the use of violence. Brown was unsuccessful, and troops led by Robert E. Lee killed 10 raiders and captured John Brown. He was found guilty of murder and treason and sentenced to death. Brown conducted himself with great composure during his trial. While many northerners thought his plan to lead a slave revolt was misguided, they also saw Brown as a hero. Southerners felt that the North wanted to destroy slavery and the South along with it.

See Also: Red Legs

In the mid-1850s, people who opposed slavery were looking for a new voice. Free Soilers, Northern Democrats, and anti-slavery Whigs formed the Republican Party. Their main goal was to keep slavery out of the western territories, not to end slavery in the South. The party grew and was ready in 1856 to challenge the older parties in power. They were not successful in 1856. In the Election of 1860, the Republicans ran Abraham Lincoln from Illinois. Lincoln was known to oppose slavery on the basis of its being morally wrong. However, Lincoln was not willing to end slavery at the risk of tearing the Union apart.

The Southerners’ reaction to the election of President Lincoln was strong. They felt that the country had put an abolitionist in the White House. The South felt that secession was the only option. In 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union. By February of 1861, Alabama, Florida, Texas, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi had seceded. In 1861, the seven states held a convention in Montgomery, Alabama, and formed the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was named the President. The Declaration of Independence stated that “it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish” a government that denies the rights of its citizens. Lincoln, they believed, would deny them the right to own slaves.

As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.

After Lincoln took the oath of office in 1861, he announced that no state can lawfully leave the Union. He declared, however, there would be no war unless the South started it. The South started to take possession of all Federal buildings — forts and post offices. The South took control of the three forts in Florida and was ready to take control of Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In April, 1861, the Confederates asked for the fort’s surrender. Major Robert Anderson of the Union refused to surrender. The Confederate troops proceeded to shell Fort Sumter. Anderson ran out of ammunition and was forced to surrender. The war had begun.

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