Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning is a pedagogical approach where students actively work together in a small group to solve a real life problem. In the process, they will learn the content knowledge relevant to the problem as well as problem solving and critical thinking skills.

As defined by Howard Barrows & Robyn Tamblyn

Barrows and Tamblyn define problem-based learning as “learning {Barrows, 1980 #1} that results from the process of working toward the understanding or resolution of a problem”. Problem-based learning was originally designed for use in the medical profession to provide students with experiences of drawing upon a range of disciplines to make accurate diagnosis during their practicum. Introducing problem-based learning as a pedagogical approach was necessary as young physicians were observed to have graduated with a wealth of knowledge but not necessarily the problem solving skills to apply that information in diagnostics assessment.

Characteristics

• Complex, real world situations with no one right answer;
• Students take initiative to search for new information / knowledge;
• Medical educators assume the role of facilitators;.
• To manage / resolve these complex, real world problems lead to the development of clinical problem-solving capabilities.

Adapted from Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980

As defined by A.R. Putnam

It is an approach that uses real world problems as a context for students to learn critical thinking and problem-solving skills, to develop independent learners who are motivated to acquire knowledge and essential concepts of the lesson.

Characteristics

• It is interdisciplinary, as knowledge and skills needed in the real world are dynamic and acquired in many different ways and through the use of various modes of teaching and learning.
• It results in multiple outcomes as there is no ‘one right answer’ when one encountersing problems in real life. Hence, students are exposed to the complexities to solveing problems in real life.
• It requires students to gain competency in a variety of skills as they engage themselves in the problem solving process.
• It emphasises higher order thinking skills where students are coached on different thinking skills which train them to go beyond the obvious solution to the problem, to explore other options and evaluate various possible solutions.

Adapted from Putnam, 2001

As defined by Linda Torp & Sara Sage

Problem-based learning requires students to be fully engaged (minds-on, hands-on) as they organise themselves around the investigation, and resolution of complicated real-world problems.

Characteristics

• Students are engaged as stakeholders in a problem;
• The given problem should be holistic and allows students to learn in relevant and connected ways;
• The learning environment created should be one that supports teachers to coach student thinking and guide student inquiry, to facilitateing deeper levels of understanding.

Adapted from Torp & Sage, 2002

As defined by Glen O’Grady, Elaine Yew, Karen Goh & Henk Schmidt

Problem-based learning is an educational strategy where learning is driven by a problem. The problem could be a challenge with a description of a difficulty, a curious outcome, or an unexpected happening. It could also be an incident where there are interesting elements, or an episode or occurrence that requires either a solution or ansome explanation. Problem-based learning as a theory of learning believes that students do not learn by simply accumulating knowledge; they need to construct a personal understanding of concepts.

Characteristics

One-Day, One-Problem at Republic Polytechnic of Singapore*

1. Teacher-facilitator designs an authentic problem to trigger student learning trigger.
2. Students learn in a small collaborative groups under the guidance of a teacher- facilitator.
3. Students learn new information through independent study.

Adapted from O’Grady, Yew, Goh, Schmidt, 2012

As defined by Oon-Seng Tan

Problem-based learning is an instructional approach that infuses problems into the class, shifts the classroom focus from passive to active learning, challenging students to construct knowledge through effective interactions and collaborative enquiry.

Characteristics

• The problem is the starting point of learning.
• The problem is usually a real-world problem that appears unstructured. If it is a simulated problem, it needs to be as authentic as possible.
• The problem calls for multiple perspectives. Problem-based learning encourages the solution of the problem by taking into consideration, knowledge from various subjects and topics.
• The problem challenges students’ current knowledge, attitudes and competencies, thus calling for identification of learning needs and new areas of learning.
• Students are expected to be independent, self-motivated learners and therefore assume major responsibility for the acquisition of information and knowledge.
• Students are expected to use and evaluate a variety of knowledge sources.
• Students work in small groups with a high level of interaction for peer learning, peer teaching and group presentations.
• Tutor works towards developing students’ inquiry and problem-solving skills through questioning and cognitive coaching, while teaching them the content knowledge needed for the solution of the problem.
• Problem-based learning concludes with an evaluation and review of the students’ experiences and the learning processes.

Adapted from Tan, 2007

The philosophical and theoretical foundation of problem-based learning were not explicit in the early problem-based learning literature. Barrows, a pioneer of problem-based learning, explains that he and the other developers of the original McMaster problem-based learning curriculum had no background in educational psychology or cognitive science. They just thought that learning in small groups through the use of clinical problems would make medical education more interesting and relevant for their students (Newman et al., 2003). Newman, et al. (2003) posits that problem-based learning can be interpreted as congruent with at least two distinct streams of theory about knowledge and learning, Constructivism and Cognitive Psychology.

Click here to learn more about Constructivism or here for Cognitivism.

From the pedagogical perspective, Tan (2007) postulates that problem-based learning is based on the constructivist theory of learning, in which realistic problems are used in conjunction with the design of a learning environment where inquiry activities, self-directed learning, information mining, dialogue, and collaborative problem-solving are incorporated.

Pre-Implementation Process

Design the the learning tasks, goals and objectives.

Construct a problem which should have the following attributes:

• complex
• ill-structured
• open-ended
• realistic
• familiar to students
• allows multidisciplinary solutions
• allows students to evaluate the effectiveness of their knowledge, reasoning and learning strategies
• fosters collaboration and communication skills

Actual Implementation

1. Orientation and Familiarisation of Problem-based learning

This step is strongly encouraged if it is the first time that the students are experiencing a problem-based learning approach to learning. It sets the stage in terms of the process, roles and hence, expectations of teacher-facilitator and students.

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator orientates students to problem-based learning. The following are provided:

• explain in detail on the process of problem-based learning
• clarify in detail on the shared group goals determined by students and individual accountability
• clear expectations on how students should collaborate
• conflict management strategies on to resolveing diverse or conflicting views

1. Group Formation

There is an option for teacher-facilitators to decide on the grouping of students forming their own groups.

2. Problem Presentation

Teacher-facilitator presents the problem while students take note of the problem shared with them.

3. Meeting the Problem

This stage focuses on students’ initial exploration of the problem.

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator helps students understand the problem by clarifying the scope and requirements, and guiding them in planning how to proceed with information gathering.

Students

Students seek to understand the problem, clarify expectations and requirements, plan and manage project timeline and split research tasks up among group members while taking group roles into consideration. (Round Robin and/or Discussion may be used here).

4. Problem Analysis and Learning Issues

At this stage, students should be actively gather, evaluate and share the information with their group members.

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitators ensure that students’ research included targeted core content, balanced with exploration of multi-disciplinary knowledge.

Students

Students delve into research, evaluate progress and quality (reliability and depth/breadth of information) of work. Students are expected to be independent, self-motivated learners and assume major responsibility for the acquisition of information and knowledge. ( Affinity Grouping may be used here)

5. Discovery and Reporting to the group

Following independent learning is peer teaching. At this point, teacher-facilitator critically analyse the information gathered so as to minimise issues of inaccurate information shared at the later stages.

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator checks on the accuracy, reliability and validity of the information obtained while ensuring that key areas are not overlooked.

Students

Students continue with research and evaluation of resources. Sharing through peer teaching is pivotal in this process of learning as a community.

6. Solution Presentation and Reflection

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator helps students to clarify their doubts and become aware of gaps in knowledge, misconceptions or over-generalisations.

Students

Students integrate knowledge from various disciplines and apply these to solve the problem. They present what they have learnt to the class, by explaining their solution in their own words. Feedback may be given by the teacher-facilitator and peers and at the same time, students are expected to provide constructive feedback to their peers as well. This requires a good understanding of their research and a critical but open mind.

7. Overview, integration and evaluation

This is the final step in the problem-based learning cycle, which focuses on the consolidation of the learning and evaluation of the processes of problem-based learning.

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator summarises and weaves all the information together, highlighting key principles, concepts and facts. Gaps in knowledge and misconceptions are also surfaced. The problem-based learning process is also evaluated, with the main focus on skills and attitudes.

Students

Students are expected to synthesise ideas shared, critically reflecting on their learning process in the information and knowledge they have co-constructed, as well as their skills and attitudes as a group member, a problem solver and self-directed learner.

8. Grading and evaluating problem-based learning

Teacher-Facilitator

Teacher-facilitator must align assessment goals with desired outcomes of lesson. Teacher should design assessment criteria to grade and evaluate students’ acquisition of content knowledge and their problem-solving, teamwork and communication skills.

A wide range of assessment strategies may be used in problem-based learning, which include observation charts, reflective journals, checklist on presentation skills, checklist of problem-solving processes, peer assessment and self-assessment.

Adapted from Tan, n.d., 2003, 2004, 2007.

Students should be observed with the following behaviour:

• Adapt to and participate in change
• Deal with problems and make reasoned decisions in unfamiliar situations
• Reason critically and creatively
• Adopt a more universal or holistic approach
• Practise empathy/appreciate other person’s points of view
• Collaborate productively in groups or teams
• Identify own strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate remedial action

Teachers should be observed to do the following:

• Help the students define precisely what is being studied or solved and check understanding
• Ensure that scribes keep an accurate record
• Facilitate the PBL processes of learning (developing inquiry skills, changing mindsets, etc.)
• Encourage all group members to participate and monitor the group dynamics
• Coach students in the strategies of problem solving (e.g. deep reasoning, critical thinking, metacognition, etc.)
• Mediate the process of acquiring information (e.g. accessing multiple information sources, making connections, etc.)
• Oversee the groups’ discussions, prevent side-tracking but not to direct students’ thoughts and ideas
• Constant and continual monitoring (consultation time where necessary)
• Collect/receive progress reports from students engaged in the investigative process (oral or written)
• Provide necessary interventions to ensure that students acquire relevant knowledge and higher-order thinking skills
• Evaluate performance of students at different stages of the PBL lessons
• Mediate learning by probing and questioning to facilitate learning of key concepts, principles and theories.
• Scaffold, bridge and close gaps in guiding students towards learning what is important in solving the problem and in acquiring knowledge in the disciplines concerned.
• Encourage comprehensive coverage and critical evaluation of information and research resources.

Cognitive-centred learning processes in Problem-based Learning

“Planful’ thinking

• Taking time to think and plan

Generative thinking

• Coming up with ideas and taking multiple perspectives

Systematic thinking

• Being organised, thorough and systematic

Analytical thinking

• Classifying, logical analysis and inference

Analogical thinking

• Applying similarities, patterns, parallel and lateral thinking

Systemic thinking

• Holistic and helicopter thinking

List of questions for teachers to facilitate students’ inquiry

Meeting the problem

• What are your thoughts on this scenario?
• What comes to your mind?
• What do we know?
• What are the statements of facts we can identify?
• What is meant by the sentence……?
• What do you think about that statement?
• Do you have any idea about this term (concept, etc.)
• Could you explain what is meant by the term (concept, etc.)

Problem summary

• How would you paraphrase….?
• Describe in your own words…..
• Describe the sequence: what came/happened first...followed by what?
• What can we say about the who, when and where?
• Could you restate what the group discussed?
• Does the group have the same mental picture of…?

Problem analysis

• What can we make out from the information?
• What additional information might we need?
• What do we need to know?
• Can we know for certain….?
• Could you think of anything else?
• What does that link you to?
• Have you considered all the possibilities?
• Do we have enough data/knowledge to suggest that….?

Formulation of learning objectives

• What is important for you to solve the problem?
• Have you listed all the key questions?
• Why do you think this issue is important?
• What makes you include……?
• What kinds of resources might be helpful?

Bringing new knowledge and problem situation

• Describe what you have learnt about….
• Explain what you understand by….
• How do you know?
• How valid and reliable is this?
• How would you connect what you learnt to….?
• How does it work?
• Explain the strategy….
• Explain your solution….
• What is at stake if we do this…..?
• What is at stake if we do not…..?
• What are the pros and cons?
• What are the consequences?
• What would the end product look like?

Review and evaluation

• What are three key things you have learnt about the problem?
• What did you learn about yourself and your peers?
• What did you learn about your problem-solving approaches?
• What did you learn about your independent learning?
• How different would it be if…?
• What other sources and counter checks do you have?
• What solution might you propose to meet the following criteria?
• How do you apply it to another situation?
• What other follow-up might you recommend?
• if you would do it again, what might you do more/less?
• How might you do it differently the next time?

Implementation Considerations

Best Practices in PBL

Preparation

• Prepare well in advance.
• Search for similar lessons or assignments, and share ideas with colleagues, including those outside the discipline;
• Assemble resources for student use;
• Access to key library and online resources is necessary;
• Consider level and training of students.

Scenario design

• It should reflect reality as closely as possible and be contemporary;
• It should be compelling, so as to draw students in and generate self-directed learning.
• It should be complex enough to involve multi-dimensional problems and solutions requiring students to work as a team.
• It should be focused and be resolvable in the time available.

Assessment

• It should be authentic and mirror problem solving process.
• Instructors should have clearly established marking criteria that are transparent to students.
• Work accountability into the assessment process. Consider both individual and group components.
• Self-assessment and peer-assessment for problem-solving abilities and for contribution to team effort.

Adapted from Pawson et al., 2006 - these are synthesised from Barrows (1988); Cuseo (1992); Wilkerson and Gijselaers (1996); Clark & Wareham (1998); Rhem (1998); Duch (1999); Leckman et al. (1999); Boud (2000); Savin-Baden (2000); Duch et. al (2001); Chapman et al. (2002).