• Development is a continuous process. It starts with pre-natal and ends with death.

• Development thus involves a movement from the whole to parts and from parts to the whole and this way it is the integration of the whole and its parts as well as the specific and general responses. It enables a child to develop satisfactorily concerning various aspects or dimensions of his personality.

Example: Child first starts to learn hand movement then finger movement and then learn the movement of both

hand and finger together this is called integration.

• Development through the continuous process, but does not exhibit steadiness and uniformity in terms of the rate of development in various development of personality or the developmental periods and stage of life.

Example: A person may have a high rate of growth and development in terms of height and weight but may not have the same pace of mental and social development.

• Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One of the most important principles of development is that involves individual differences. There is no fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is universal, but the time at which each child takes his her first step may vary.

• Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One of the most important principles of development is that involves individual differences. There is no fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is universal, but the time at which each child takes his her first step may vary.

• While developing to any aspect of personality. The child first pickup or exhibit a general response and learn how to show specific and goal-directed responses afterwards.

• The development of a child is a process that cannot be defined wholly based on either heredity or environment. Both have to play an important role in development. There are arguments in favor of both. However, most psychologists agree that an interplay of these two factors leads to development.

• Where heredity decides or set some limits on development (mostly physical), environmental influences complete the developmental process ( qualitative). Environmental influences provide space for multidimensional development through interaction with family, peers, society and so on. Growth and development is a joint product of heredity and environment.

• Various aspects or dimensions of one’s growth and development are interrelated. What is achieved or not achieved in one or other dimensions in the course of the gradual and continuous process of the development surely affects the development of other dimensions?

• A healthy body tends to develop a healthy mind and an emotionally stable, physically strong and socially conscious personality. Inadequate physical or mental development may, on the other hand, result in a socially or emotionally maladjusted personality.

• Development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis. Development from head to foot or toe. That is why, before it becomes able to stand, the child first gains control over his head and arms and then on his legs.

CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN

• during infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top- the head with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working in its way down from top to bottom

Ex: neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on.

• Development of motor skills to start at central body parts to outwards. That is why, in the beginning, the child is seen to exercise control over the large fundamental muscles of the arm and then hand and only afterwards over the smaller muscles of the fingers.

• While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.

• If children come from good home with loving and caring parents, they may develop into warm and responsible children, adolescents and adults. 

• If they come from deprived environment, they may develop into carefree and irresponsible adolescents and adults.

DEVELOPMENT TAKES GRADUALLY

While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics.

Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes.

• BIOLOGICAL PROCESS - involves changes in the individual’s physical nature

• COGNITIVE PROCESS - involves changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language

• SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESS - involves changes in the individual’s relationships with other people

• Development is predictable, which means that with the help of the uniformity of pattern and sequence of development. We can go to a great extent, forecast the general nature and behavior of a child in one or more aspects or dimensions at any particular stage of its growth and development. We can know the particular age at which children will learn to walk, speak and soon.

• The child doesn’t proceed straight or linear on the path of development at any stage never takes place at a constant or steady pace. After the child had developed to a certain level, there is likely to be a period of rest for consolidation of the developmental progress achieved till then. In advancing further, therefore, the development turn back and then moves forward again in a spiral pattern.

• Biological growth and development are known as maturation. Biological changes involve changes in the brain and the nervous system, which provide new abilities to a child. Development proceeds from simple to complex. In the beginning, a child learns through concrete objects and gradually moves to abstract thinking. This transition happens because of the maturation.

• Its normal for new born babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. (Due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding/ once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly).

• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than the bottle-fed babies through the first 6 months.(After 6 months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.

•  In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30% in the first 5 months.

• A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life.

• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady development.

Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first 2 years of life are the spreading connections of dendrites to each other. (Remember neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses).

Myelination or myelinization

• The process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth.

• The process of MYELINATION or MYELINIZATION increases the speed at w/c information travels through the nervous system.

➢ At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25% of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.

➢ Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used. The infant’s brain is literally waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made.

Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

REFLEXES

• The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth with generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and matures.

COMMON REFLEXES

• Sucking Reflex (The sucking reflexes is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort).

• Rooting Reflex (The roofing reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding).

• Gripping Reflex (Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their grip).

• Curling Reflex (When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked the infant respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes).

• Startle/Moro Reflex (Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies ).

• Galant Reflex (The galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked).

• Tonic Neck Reflex (The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whenever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl).

• The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult.

• Infants look at different things for different lengths of time.

• In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz(1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than at color or brightness.

• Based on these results, it is likely that ‘’pattern perception has an innate basis’’. Among the first few things that babies learn to recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds and nurses them.

Can NEWBORN Hear?

• The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice and music.

• Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult.

Can NEWBORNS differentiate Odors?

• In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane(1975) ‘’ Young infants who were breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when the babies were only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize their mother’s breast pad odor’’.

Can NEWBORNS feel pain? Do they Respond to touch?

• They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol( an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery.

• Babies respond to touch. The newborn automatically sucks an object placed in his/her head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.

Can NEWBORNS distinguish the different tastes?

• In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour and bitter solutions.

• When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased swallowing was observed. This indicates that nsensitivity to taste might be present before birth.

Do infants relate information through several senses? Or Are infants capable of intermodal perception?

• INTERMODAL PERCEPTION is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.

• In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley(1979), it was found out that as early as at 3 1⁄2 months old, infants looked more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.

• This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.

Standard 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head circumference)

Standard 2: The child has adequate sensory system to participate in daily activities.

0 - 6 months

• Startles to loud sounds

• Visually follows a moving object from side to side and up and down

• Reacts to pain by crying

• Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot

• Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with something cold

• Reacts with pleasures/smiles or relaxed expression when she/he tastes something delicious

• Reacts by making face/ frowns/grimaces when she/he tastes something she/he does not like

7 – 12 months

• Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice

• Reacts by making a face when she/he tastes something smells something foul

Standard 3:  The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities

• Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.g. chairs, large boxes)

• Walks without tiring easily

13 – 18 months

• Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates

• Participate actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises

19 – 24 months

• Sustain physical activity (e.g., dancing, outdoors games, swimming) for at least 3-5 minutes

Standard 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements

involving large muscle groups.

0 - 6 months

• Holds head steady

• Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object

• Roll over

• Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs

• Sits with support

• Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this

7 – 12 months

• Sits alone steady without support

• Creeps or crawls with ease as primary means of moving around

• Stands without support

• Stands from a sitting position without any help

• Squats and Stands from a standing position with ease

• Bends over easily without falling

• Stands from a bent position without falling

• Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture

• Walks with one hand held

13 – 18 months

• Walks without support

• Walks backwards

• Walks up and down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step

• Jumps in place

• Climbs on a steady elevated surface

• Kicks and Throws a ball but with little control of direction and speed

• Runs without tripping or falling

• Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without assistance

• Moves with music when he hears it

• Can move body to imitate familiar animals and another person/TV character

19 – 24 months

• Walks up and down the stairs with alternating feet, without help

• Kicks a ball with control of direction

• Throws a ball with control of direction and speed

Standard 1: The child shows control and coordination hand and finger movements

0 - 6 months

• Hands open most of the time

• Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy

• Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects

• Uses all 5fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface

• Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time

7 – 12 months

• Pulls toy by string

• Bangs 2 large blocks together

• Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers

• Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand

• Grasps objects with the same hand all the time

13 – 18 months

• Puts small objects in/out of container

• Unscrews lids

• Unwraps candy/food

• Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip

• Scribbles spontaneously

19 – 24 months

• Colors with strokes going out of the lines

Standard 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.

0 - 6 months

• Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle

• Begins to take complementary or semi-solid foods by the end if 6 months

• Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is being changed

7 – 12 months

• Holds a feeding bottle by him self

• Helps hold cup for drinking

• Chews solid foods well

• Scoops with a spoon with spillage

13 – 18 months

• Feeds self with assistance 

• No longer drinks from feeding bottle

• Participate when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs 

• Remove sandals/shoes 

• Takes a bath with assistance

• Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult

• Washes and dries hands under adult supervision

19 – 24 months

• Gets drink unassisted

• Removes loose sando and socks

• Informs caregiver of the needs to urinate so he/she can brought tp the comport room

• Go to the designed place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants

• Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision

• Washes and dries face under adult supervision

Standard 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his thoughts and feelings

0 - 6 months

• Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds

• Uses gestures to indicate what he/she wants

7 – 12 months

• Repeats sounds produce by others

• Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer specific persons

• Uses animal sounds to identify animals

• Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment

13 – 18 months

• Speaks single worlds

• Says “yes” and “no” appropriately

• Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants

• Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood

19 – 24 months

• Uses pronouns 

• Uses possessive pronouns 

• Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures 

• Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood

Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes, symbols

7 – 12 months

• Able to match 2 identical objects

19 – 24 months

• Matches identical objects

• Matches identical pictures

• is much slower in pace than in infancy and toddler.

• they move from baby-like features toward a more slender appearance of a child.

• the trunk, arms and legs become longer.

Center of Gravity - the point in which body-weight is evenly distributed.

• Toodlers center of gravity is the chest level. (This is why they have difficulty in doing sudden movements without falling down).

Toddle - the wobbly way that toodlers walk.

• Preschoolers center of gravity is at the lower level. (right about near belly button) that gives them more ability to be stable and balance.

The later part of Preschooler (5-6y/o)

• best time to begin learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating.

At 3 years old

• their teeth are already in place and their permanent teeth will begin to come out by the age of 6 are also developing.

Preschooler Years

• a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.

•  It refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.

Example: Walking, Hopping, Running, Creeping, Climbing, Galloping, Skipping, Dodging

It is categorize into three: 

1. Locomotor Skills - are those going from one place to another.

2. Non Locomotor Skills - are those where the child stays in place.

3.  Manipulative Skills - are those that involve projecting and receiving.

• it refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully.

Example: Picking, Pounding, Squeezing, Opening things

• Holding and using a writing implement Self help skills

• significant progress in fine motor skills is expected to be learned.

At 4 years old

• the handedness or the preference of the use of one hand over the other is usually established.

Observation: shifting of the crayon from left to right and back again.

The following are the physical skills of preschoolers that lifted from Physical Domain component of Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) and adopted and use by the Early Childhood Care and Development Council.

Gross Motor : 36-48 months

• Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot

• Skips (with alternating feet)

• Jumps and turns

• Stands on one leg without falling for atleast 5 seconds

• Throws a ball overhead with control of direction

• Throws a ball overhead with control speed

• Kicks a ball with control of speed

Fine Motor Skills: 36-48 months

• Consistently turn pages of a picture or story book one page at a time, looking pictures with interest

• Purposefully copies diagonal lines

• Purposefully bisects cross

• Purposefully copies a square

• Purposefully copies a triangle

• Cuts with scissors following a line.

• Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes

• Draw a human figure without prompts

• Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms

• Colors with strokes staying within the lines

Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills 36-48 months)

• Pours from pitcher without spillage

• Feeds self using spoon without spillage

• Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces

• Puts on socks independently

Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills 49-60 months)

• Feeds self using fingers without spillage

• Prepares own food

• Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying

• Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement

• Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told

• Washes and dries face independently without having to be told

• Takes a bath independently without having to be told.

Optimum Physical Development Of Preschoolers

• largely influenced by the supportive caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment and appropriate activities for the children.

For all preschoolers

a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking

b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and bean bags.

c. Have balancing activities. Use low balance beams and lines on the classroom floor or playground.

d. Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft mats.

e. Ensure that they have get enough rest and sleep.

f. Model good eating habits, like encouraging them to eat more fruits, vegetables, water and fresh juices rather than processed foods, sugary snacks and sodas

For 3 year old

g. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttons or old beads to string on a shoe lace.

h. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.

i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither like a snake, and run like a deer.

j. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking what children are drawing.

k. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yarn. Teach children to mix different colors with paint.

For 4 year old

l. Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk like various animals.

m. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across stepping stones.

n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.

o. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing “Follow the leader” with skipping, galloping and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing and a knotted rope suspended from a study frame.

p. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em”, “statue” or freeze games to provide an outlet for their drive for physical activity.

q. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like “Hockey-Pokey”, “Looby- Loo”, and “Simon says”

r. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.

Play is the main agenda of the preschooler years. It has a social dimension.

• As preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases.

• Mildred Parten did a study on children’s play behavior which led to Parten’s stages of play.

PARTEN'S STAGES OF PLAY 

1. Unoccupied - the child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything that interest him.

2. Onlooker - the child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not enter into play with them.

3. Solitary Play - also known as independent play, is one of the earliest stages of play where children play alone because they have not developed socially to be able to play with others yet or because they choose alone time.

4. Parallel Play - the child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays beside and not with them. No interaction takes place.

5. Associative Play - The child plays with others. There is interaction among them, but no task assignment, rules and organization are agreed upon.

6. Cooperative - the child plays with others bound by some agreed upon rules and roles. The goal is maybe to make something, play a game, or act out something.

Authoritative - (high demandingness, high responsiveness)

Authoritarian - (high demandingness, low responsiveness)

Permissive - (low demandingness, high responsiveness)

Negligent - (low demandingness, low responsiveness)

1. AUTHORITATIVE (high demandingness, high responsiveness)

Caregivers/parents/teachers with this caregiver style

• Expect behavior appropriate to the age of the child.

• Maintain reasonable and fair limits

• Closely monitor the activities of the child

• Warm and nurturing

• Have realistic expectations of the child

• Communicate messages in a kind, firm and consistent manner

• Discipline approach focuses more on teaching than punishing

Effect on the Preschooler

• Makes the preschooler feel safe and secure

• Teaches the child to take responsibility for his/her actions

• Develops good self- control

• Develops a realistic view of oneself

• Builds the child’s capacity for empathy

2. AUTHORITARIAN (high demandingness, low responsiveness)

Caregivers/parents/teachers with this caregiver style

• Set subjective or unreasonable limits

• Communicate messages

• Strive to have strong psychological control over the child

• Do not supervise children’s activities very well and then get upset if they make a mistake

• Use corporal punishment, sarcasm, withdrawal of love, threats

• Not able to teach children a better way to behave

Effect on the Preschooler

• Lead to aggressive behavior of the child

• Brings about poor self-control

• Results in poor self-esteem

3. PERMISSIVE  (low demandingness, high responsiveness)

Caregivers/parents/teachers with this caregiver style

• Permit the preschoolers to regulate their own behavior and make their own decisions even when preschoolers are not yet ready to do so

• Do not set rules or very few if any

• Do not demand good behavior or task accomplishment

• May lack confidence in their ability to influence the child

• Maybe disorganized and ineffective in managing the family and household/class

• Shows undemanding, indifferent and rejecting action towards the child

• Has little commitment to their roles as parents/caregivers

• Maybe depressed or overburdened bY many concerns like poverty, marital problems, or absence of support from others

Effect on the Preschooler

• Has difficulty controlling his/her impulses

• Tends to be dependent

• Tends to be demanding of their caregivers

• Tends not to persist or easily follow

• Maybe rebellious

• Does not handle frustration well

• Has inadequate emotional control

• Difficulties in school performance

When parents’ behavior is to the extreme or if child experiences this style early, the child may have:

• Attachment problems

• Delayed cognitive development

• Poor social and emotional skills

• Delinquent behavior later in adolescence

EXPRESSION OF BASIC EMOTION

37-48 months (3-4 years)

• Expresses what he/she likes

• Expresses what he/she dislikes

• Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sadness, worry) he/she experiences

Self-regulation of feelings/emotion

• Willing to try something in order to learn more even if unsure of a successful outcome

• Perseveres when faced with challenging or new tasks

• Accepts brief delays in gratification

• Accept defeat well; is not a sore loser

• May have some fears but is no overly fearful, anxious or nervous

• May feel sad at times but not to the point where he/she is depressed

Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt)

• Plays to learn a game

• Plays to gain mastery of a game

• Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful attempts or efforts

• Confidently joins small groups especially if the situation is competitive

• Seeks assistance from an adult or child to solve a problem

RECEPTIVITY TO OTHERS' EMOTIONS AND HAVING EMPATHY

37-48 months

• Feels others’ distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives, suggestions, etc.)

Emerging Sense of Self

• Knowledge of Self and Basic Roles of People in his Environment

Talks about parts of the body and their functions

• Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e.g., sings, dances, is helpful, studious, etc.)

• Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like and don’t like

• Defends possessions with determination

• Can give reasons or justify why he/she acted the way he/she did

Forming Attachments

• Shows preference for the company of significant adults and children (other than the primary caregiver) over unfamiliar adults and children

• Interactions with Other Children

• Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment

• Participates in games with other children but plays in his own way

• Chat/converses with other children

• Takes turn and shares toys with others

• Actively participates in classroom and group routines

• Plays organized group games fairly

INTERACTION WITH ADULTS

36-48 months

• Verbalizes feelings related to events that arise in classroom, home, and environment in a positive way

• Speaks respectfully with adults using “po” and “opo” and/or appropriate titles

• Recognizes the importance of adult’s ideas and experiences by listening and asking questions when they share these

• Clarifies rules and routines before abiding by them

• Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with or see the value of a rule or routine

• Can take on another person’s viewpoint

Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)

• Knows when to stop asking questions or when he is being “makulit”

• Cooperates to minimize conflict or tension

Appreciating Diversity

• Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in socio-economic status

• Ask questions about new/different words and practices in the community

• Talks about gender differences and roles

• Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels, and does not resort to name-calling

• Willing to make friends with other children and adults in different situations and locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)

Middle Childhood is the stage when childhood undergo so many different changes- physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to 12 years old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or early childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important during this phase of development.

Physical development involves many different factors, height, weight, appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many different changes as they go through this stage of development.

Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady.

Physical Development involves,

1. Having good muscle control and coordination.

2. Developing eye-hand coordination

3. Having good personal hygiene

4. Being aware of good safety habits.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their primary years – Grade 1 to 3. This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the changes in their bodies.

❖ An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will introduce many different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.

❖ Weight gain average about 6.5 pounds a year.

A number of factors could indicate how much a child growth or how much changes in the body will take place:

-Genes           -Exercise

-Food -medical conditions

-Climate -diseases/ illnesses

BONES AND MUSCLE

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years.

• This is the best time to teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives.

• Lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.

• Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening bones and muscles.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies.

• Have good sense of balance.

• They like testing their muscle strength and skills.

• They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities.

• They pretend and fantasize less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening around them.

• Children in this stage love to move a lot- they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed .

Performing unimanual(require the use of one hand) bi-manual (require the use of two hands) activities become easier.

Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility, and power.

1. Coordination- is a series of movements organized and timed occur in a particular way to bring about a particular result (Strickland,2000). The more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.

2. Balance- is the ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions. It is a basic skill needed especially in this stage.

• Static Balance- is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing one foot.

• Dynamic Balance- is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006).

3. Speed- is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.

4. Agility- is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.

5. Power- is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.

Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development. According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance ensuring balance in the relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations. He described four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget’s intellectual ability is not the same at different stages

Concrete Operation

• It starts from age 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage, children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.

Logic

• It starts from age 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage, children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.

Reversibility

• One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to revise the order of relationships between mental categories

Cognitive Milestones

• Elementary-aged children encounter developmental. They develop certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are the in a sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can perform a mathematical equation. Each milestone that develops is dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until age of 8 a child learn new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach that age of 8 the skills they learn starts to level off and it usually is a ready increase of new skills.

• Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. They are able to speak and express themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words and language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read words or combinations of words.

NUTRITION AND ACTIVITY

➢ Adolescents may be ready to make decisions about their body and health.

➢ Making healthy decisions about what to eat and drink, how active they are, and how much sleep to get are important decisions that can either promote or hinder health.

Unfortunately, many teens do not make healthy decisions, partly due to the frontal cortex which is still developing and partly due to the culture in which we live.

Teens need to be taught how to make healthy eating choices. Here are some healthy eating tips that teens should know:

• Try to limit foods like cookies, candy, frozen desserts, chips, and fries, which often have a lot of sugar, unhealthy fat, and salt.

• For a quick snack, try recharging with a pear, apple, or banana; a small bag of baby carrots; or hummus with sliced veggies.

• Don’t add sugar to your food and drinks.

• Drink fat-free or low-fat milk and avoid sugary drinks.

• Soda, energy drinks, sweet tea, and some juices have added sugars, a source of extra calories.

In addition to making smart food choices, it is also important to know that the nutritional needs of adolescents are unique.

Many teens need more of these nutrients:

• CALCIUM -to build strong bones and teeth. Good sources of calcium include fat-free or low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese.

• VITAMIN -to keep bones healthy. Good sources of vitamin D include orange juice, oranges, tuna, and fat-free or low-fat milk.

• POTASSIUM -to help lower blood pressure. Good sources of potassium include bananas and baked potatoes with the skin.

• FIBER -to help stay regular and feel full. Good sources of fiber include beans and celery.

• PROTEIN -to give you energy and help you grow strong. Good sources of protein include peanut butter, eggs, tofu, legumes (lentils and peas), and chicken, fish, and low-fat meats.

• IRON -to help you grow. Red meat contains a form of iron that your body absorbs best. Other good sources of iron include spinach, beans, peas, and iron-fortified cereals. You can help your body absorb the iron from these foods better when you combine these foods with vitamin C, like an orange.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

• It should be part of teenagers’ daily life, whether they play sports, take physical education (PE) classes in school, do chores, or get around by biking or walking.

• Regular physical activity can help teenagers manage their weight, have stronger muscles and bones, and be more flexible.

AEROBIC VERSUS LIFESTYLE ACTIVITIES

Examples of aerobic physical activity or activity that makes you breathe harder and speeds up your heart rate, include jogging, biking, and dancing.

✓ People, regardless of age, need to be physically active for at least 60 minutes a day.

✓ Most of the 60 minutes or more of activity a day should be either moderate or intense aerobic physical activity.

✓ Everyone should include intense physical activity at least 3 days a week.

• Brisk walking, jogging, or biking on flat streets or paths all work are more moderate workout.

• To pick up the intensity, individuals can turn a walk into a jog, or jog into a run and including hills to the walk, jog, or bike ride.

• We don’t have to do 60 minutes a day all at once to benefit from the activity.

• Teens can download fitness applications onto their computer, smartphone, or other mobile device to help keep track of how active they are each day.

SLEEP NEEDS

• Sometimes it’s difficult for teens to get enough sleep, especially if they have jobs, help take care of younger brothers or sisters, or are busy with other activities after school.

• Like healthy eating and getting enough physical activity, getting enough sleep is important for staying healthy.

• Everyone needs enough sleep to do well in school, work, drive safely, and fight off infection.

• Not getting enough sleep may lead to moodiness and irritability.

SLEEP NEEDS

✓ Some studies have shown that not getting enough sleep may also contribute to weight gain.

✓ Individuals between 13 and 18 years old should get 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night.

✓ The amount of sleep you need changes as you age.

✓ Children need more sleep than adults.

✓ There are changes which are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections which join and coordinate the two hemisphere of the brain.

✓ There is a process of continuous concentration of the brain.