Levels of Linguistic Analysis

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

·            Understand the scope of the phono-graphological level in stylistics, drawing from Halliday’s (1961) framework.

·            Identify key sound and visual features in literary texts.

·            Analyze how phonological and graphological features shape tone, rhythm, symbolism, and narrative emphasis.

·            Apply phono-graphological analysis to selected passages in fiction.

1. Mini-Lecture: What Is the Phono-Graphological Level?

Phono-graphology, a term popularized by Halliday (1961), refers to the integration of phonological (sound-based) and graphological (visual) elements in language. Halliday proposed that language operates on multiple levels: form, substance, and context. Substance encompasses both phonic (audible sounds) and graphic (visible marks) material. In literary stylistics, this level of analysis explores how sound patterns and visual presentation influence interpretation and emotional impact.

🔊 Phonological Features (Sound Substance):

• Alliteration and Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., “bog-myrtle and bilberry” with bilabial /b/ sounds) creates rhythm and mood. Modern phonetic analysis allows for deeper recognition of patterns based on articulation rather than spelling.

• Rhyme and Rhythm: Includes full rhyme, half-rhyme (clap/trip), reverse rhyme (slip/slim), and feminine rhyme (unstressed endings like “midges” and “hedges”).

• Sound Symbolism: Certain phonemes evoke symbolic meaning:

  • Sibilants (/s/, /ʃ/): Suggest softness, secrecy, or wind.

  • Plosives (/p/, /t/, /k/): Indicate abruptness or intensity.

  • Nasals (/m/, /n/): Evoke depth or emotion.

  • Vowel qualities: High vowels like /i/ can suggest smallness or lightness; low vowels like /o/ may suggest largeness or gravity.

👁 Graphological Features (Graphic Substance):

• Punctuation (ellipses, dashes, unconventional marks)

• Capitalization, italics, and font variation

• Line breaks, paragraphing, and spacing

• Visual poetry and concrete poetry, where layout mirrors content (e.g., the word “wave” shaped to mimic a wave)

📌 In fiction, these features often appear subtly—yet they meaningfully shape mood, voice, pacing, and reader engagement.

2. Text Focus: A Good Man Is Hard to Find by Flannery O’Connor

“She would have been a good woman... if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life.”

📌 Activity: Guided Listening and Visual Focus

• Read aloud slowly: what sounds are emphasized?

• Consider the rhythm of the line — where does the stress fall?

• How does punctuation (or lack thereof) influence interpretation?

🧠 Guiding Questions:

• What is the emotional impact of the long sentence with ellipsis and minimal pause?

• Does the rhythm mimic calmness, panic, or irony?

3. Stylistic Breakdown Table

Feature

Example

Effect

Alliteration

“She saw the shadow shift silently.”

Suggests stealth, suspense

Rhythm

Long sentence ending in “every minute of her life”

Emphasizes futility and inevitability

Ellipsis

“She would have been a good woman...”

Creates pause, leaves reflection open-ended

Onomatopoeia

“The gun went pop-pop-pop” (in another context)

Mimics action; evokes tension

4. Self-Check Questions

1.      What is the difference between alliteration and consonance?

2.      How can ellipsis (...) alter the pacing of a sentence?

3.      Give an example of onomatopoeia in fiction and explain its effect.

4.      How can font or capitalization choices influence narrative tone?

5. Applied Activity: Sound and Sight Mapping

Instructions:

• Select a paragraph from a story or novel that seems “loud,” “quiet,” or emotionally charged.

• Identify sound patterns (repetition, contrast, softness).

• Note any graphological features (italics, dashes, spacing).

• Analyze how these affect pacing and emotion.

Feature

Textual Example

Interpretation

Alliteration

“Suddenly she sat straight.”

Suddenness mirrored in sharp consonants

Italics

I don’t care anymore.

Emphasis on defiance; inner voice

Dashes

“He was—well, not ready.”

Hesitation or disjointed thought

6. Creative Challenge: Rewrite with Emphasis

Original:

“She was afraid.”

Tasks:

• Rewrite the sentence using graphological features to show:

  • Panic

  • Calm fear

  • Suppressed fear

Example:

• SHE. WAS. AFRAID. → panic

• She was afraid... but quiet. → calm, hesitant

• she was afraid. (lowercase, subdued) → quiet suppression

7. Critical Reflection Prompt

🖋 Reflect on a passage in fiction where a character’s inner thoughts or panic was made visible not just by content but by how it sounded or looked on the page. How did punctuation, rhythm, or layout contribute to your emotional reaction?

📚 Suggested Readings:

• Leech & Short (2007). Style in Fiction – Chapter 5: “Sound and Sense”

• Wales, Katie (2014). A Dictionary of Stylistics – Entries on “Phonology,” “Graphology,” and “Punctuation”

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Define and explain the lexical and semantic aspects of stylistic analysis.

• Identify lexical choices and semantic patterns in fiction.

• Analyze how vocabulary and meaning shape characterization, tone, and theme.

• Apply lexico-semantic analysis to literary texts.

1. Mini-Lecture: What Is the Lexico-Semantic Level?

The lexico-semantic level is a key dimension in stylistic analysis that examines how vocabulary (lexis) and meaning (semantics) function together to shape a literary text’s tone, theme, characterization, and emotional resonance.

📖 Definitions and Scope

• Lexicon refers to the entire set of words and expressions within a language—what we might call a speaker's mental dictionary.

• Semantics is the study of how meaning is conveyed through language—at the level of individual words, phrases, and larger units like sentences.

According to Leech & Short (2007), this level is where style most visibly “touches the substance of thought,” and where writers select specific words not just to describe, but to evoke, suggest, and transform meaning.

🧠 Key Concepts at the Lexico-Semantic Level

1.      Denotation and Connotation

o    Denotation is the literal meaning of a word.

o    Connotation refers to the emotional or cultural associations a word carries (Simpson, 2004).

2.      Componential Analysis
Introduced by Katz & Fodor (1963), this method breaks down words into their semantic components. For example:

o    Spinster = +HUMAN, +FEMALE, +MATURE, -MARRIED
This technique helps analysts uncover hidden cultural assumptions embedded in lexical choices.

3.      Collocation and Selectional Restrictions
Words often occur together in expected combinations. Deviation from typical collocations (e.g., “a grief ago” instead of “a year ago”) can create poetic effect and signal foregrounding, as seen in Dylan Thomas’s work.

4.      Lexical Fields
These are semantic groupings of words tied by topic or theme (e.g., “wound, blood, scar” = field of injury). Such groupings shape mood and reader expectation (Carter, 2004).

5.      Register and Tone
Vocabulary choices shift according to social context—formal vs. informal, technical vs. emotive. Lexical register influences how readers perceive characters or narrators.

6.      Semantic Deviation and Figurative Language
Writers often bend language rules to enhance impact. Metaphors, irony, and oxymorons (e.g., “a baby’s venom”) allow meanings to resonate beyond the literal.

7.      Sense Relations
These include:

o    Synonymy, Antonymy, Hyponymy

o    Homonymy and Polysemy

o    These relationships build cohesion and help foreground deeper symbolic structures in a text.

✨ Application in Stylistic Analysis

Stylistic analysis at this level considers:

• How word choices reinforce themes

• How semantic patterns develop character voice

• How unusual lexical combinations (foregrounding) provoke deeper interpretation

Consider the example:

“124 was spiteful. Full of a baby’s venom.” — *Toni Morrison, Beloved

This brief passage combines personification, oxymoron, and metaphor. The house (“124”) is assigned human emotion (spite), while “a baby’s venom” subverts the expectation of innocence—creating discomfort and hinting at trauma.

According to Carter (2004), such lexical choices are not random; they perform psychological and narrative work, subtly guiding how the reader interprets events and characters.

2. Lexical Features to Watch

Feature

Explanation

Effect

Lexical repetition

Repeating key words or roots

Reinforces themes or emotions

Figurative language

Metaphor, simile, personification

Adds layers of meaning, deepens imagery

Lexical field

Words connected by theme or context

Creates cohesion and emphasis

Archaic or rare lexis

Outdated or uncommon words

Suggests formality, distance, historical tone

Abstract vs. concrete

Use of ideas vs. tangible nouns

Shapes clarity or emotional engagement

3. Text Focus: Beloved by Toni Morrison

“124 was spiteful. Full of a baby’s venom. The women in the house knew it and so did the children.”

📌 Activity: Guided Analysis

• What key lexical items stand out?

• How does Morrison use metaphor? What semantic associations emerge?

• What is the emotional impact of using the word “venom” for a baby?

🧠 Guiding Questions:

• How does Morrison’s word choice contribute to the tone of the narrative?

• What connotations do “spiteful” and “venom” carry when used to describe a house or a baby?

4. Stylistic Breakdown Table

Phrase or Sentence

Lexico-Semantic Feature

Effect

“124 was spiteful.”

Personification, abstract noun

Assigns emotion to a house; eerie tone

“Full of a baby’s venom.”

Oxymoron, metaphor

Disturbing inversion of innocence; emotional tension

“The women... so did the children.”

Common lexis, repetition

Emphasizes shared experience; communal trauma

5. Self-Check Questions

1.      What is the difference between denotation and connotation?

2.      How does lexical field analysis enhance interpretation?

3.      Identify and explain a metaphor in a literary text you’ve read recently.

4.      What does Morrison’s use of “venom” reveal about the character of the house?

(Answer key available at end of module)

6. Applied Activity: Word Web Mapping

Instructions:

• Choose a paragraph from any short story or novel.

• Identify at least 5 key lexical items.

• Group them by semantic field or emotional register.

• Analyze: What kind of world is the author constructing through vocabulary?

Key Word

Semantic Field

Emotional Impact

silence

fear, trauma

unsettling, ominous

cracked

destruction, decay

visual, distressing

lullaby

childhood, comfort

contrast (irony if in horror)

7. Creative Challenge: Lexical Rewriting

Rewrite this sentence to change its lexico-semantic tone:

Original: “The room was cold and empty.”

• Version A: Make it romantic.

• Version B: Make it terrifying.

• Version C: Make it magical or surreal.

Reflect: How did your lexical choices shape the mood?

8. Critical Reflection

🔍 Prompt:
Think of a character you admire from fiction. Reflect on how the author used specific word choices to bring that character to life. Did their speech or narrative voice use formal, poetic, or slang vocabulary? How did that influence your perception of them?

📚 Suggested Readings:

• Leech, G. & Short, M. (2007). Style in Fiction – Chapter 6: “Words and Their Meanings”

• Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students – Unit B2: “Lexis and Meaning”

• Carter, R. (2004). Language and Creativity: The Art of Common Talk – Chapters on lexis in fiction

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Understand how syntax contributes to literary style and meaning.

• Identify syntactic patterns, deviations, and manipulation in fiction.

• Analyze the stylistic effects of sentence structure on tone, pace, and voice.

• Apply syntactic stylistic analysis to literary texts.

1. Mini-Lecture: What Is Syntax in Stylistics?

Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences. In stylistics, the syntactic level of analysis helps us understand how sentence structure contributes to meaning, tone, rhythm, and narrative perspective in literary texts.

While in everyday language, syntactic structures follow conventional norms to ensure clarity, in literary texts, syntax can be manipulated—or even deviated from—to foreground certain meanings, evoke emotions, and mirror characters' psychological states. This form of stylistic manipulation is often referred to as internal deviation—a conscious shift from linguistic norms that draws the reader’s attention (Leech & Short, 2007).

Core Aspects of Syntactic Analysis:

• Sentence types (declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, imperative)

• Sentence length and complexity

• Clause structure (coordination vs. subordination)

• Word order and inversion

• Ellipsis and fragmentation

• Ambiguity and ungrammaticality

📌 Why it matters: Writers use these features to craft voice, create atmosphere, reflect character states, and guide reader response. For example, a fragmented sentence might suggest emotional turmoil, while hypotaxis (subordination) could reflect a character’s introspective or reflective nature.

2. Syntactic Features in Literature

Feature

Explanation

Stylistic Effect

Parataxis

Use of short, simple clauses without conjunctions

Urgency, simplicity, detachment

Hypotaxis

Use of subordinated clauses

Reflects complex thought, introspection

Fragmentation

Incomplete or elliptical sentence structures

Suggests inner turmoil, informality

Inversion

Reversing conventional word order

Draws attention, poetic or archaic tone

Repetition

Recurrence of syntactic structures

Creates rhythm, reinforces ideas

Ungrammaticality

Deliberate deviation from standard grammar

Challenges norms, stimulates thought (e.g., e.e. cummings)

Ambiguity

Structural duality (e.g., apposition vs. listing)

Encourages layered interpretation

Iconicity

Syntax reflects meaning (form mirrors content)

Enhances semantic depth and emotional resonance

3. Text Focus: The Road by Cormac McCarthy

“He walked out in the gray light and stood and he saw for a brief moment the absolute truth of the world. The cold relentless circling of the intestate earth. Darkness implacable. The blind dogs of the sun in their running.”

📌 Group Activity:

• Break this passage into syntactic units.

• Identify sentence types, fragments, and deviations.

• Discuss how McCarthy’s syntactic minimalism contributes to the bleakness of the setting and psychological tension.

🧠 Guiding Questions:

• How do fragments like "Darkness implacable" emphasize emotional flatness or existential dread?

• How does the lack of punctuation and paratactic structure affect the reading pace and narrative tone?

4. Stylistic Breakdown Table

Sentence/Line

Syntactic Feature

Effect

“Darkness implacable.”

Fragment + Inversion

Emphasizes hopelessness; removes narrative comfort

“The cold relentless circling…”

Elliptical structure

Abstracts reality; reflects the theme of aimlessness

“He walked out… and he saw…”

Parataxis

Reflects basic survival instinct; emotional detachment

This manipulation of structure creates foregrounding, forcing the reader to pause and process the emotional weight of each sentence—what Leech and Short (2007) identify as a stylistic “foregrounding of form.”

5. Self-Check Questions

• What is the difference between parataxis and hypotaxis?

• How can sentence fragments affect tone or rhythm?

• In what ways can syntactic deviation reflect a character’s psychological state?

• How does McCarthy’s style in The Road align with its themes of desolation and endurance?

6. Applied Activity: Syntax Sleuth

Choose a literary excerpt (4–5 sentences). Annotate it for syntax using this table:

Excerpt

Syntactic Feature

Effect

Connection to Theme/Tone

7. Creative Challenge: Rewriting for Style

Original sentence: “She waited for the storm to pass.”

Try three stylistic rewrites:

1.      As a fragment → Waiting. For the storm. To pass.

2.      Using hypotaxis → She waited, even though the storm showed no signs of ending.

3.      With inversion → For the storm to pass, she waited.

📝 Reflection: How does each version shift the tone, pace, or emotional undertone?

8. Critical Reflection

Reflect on a time when a sentence’s structure deeply influenced your emotional response to a text. Did a long, meandering sentence echo a character’s anxiety? Did a blunt fragment leave you stunned? Write a paragraph analyzing how syntax shaped your readerly experience.

📚 Suggested Readings:

• Leech, G. & Short, M. (2007). Style in Fiction – Chapter 5: “Syntactic and Structural Patterns”

• Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students – Unit C3: “Syntax and Style”

• Toolan, M. (1998). Language in Literature – Chapter 4: “Stylistic Grammar”