Marinos Chourdakis, Evangelos Taliouris and Georgia Dimari,

European Journal of Political Culture

ISSN 2784 - 0271 ISSN – L 2784 – 0271

Volume 2, Issue No.1 (June 2022), pp.1-19

Published: 25 June 2022

European Integration and

Education Policy Issues in Greece:

Higher Education Policy and Its Linkage with Civic Education and Participation

Marinos Chourdakis

Evangelos Taliouris

Hellenic Mediterranean University

Georgia Dimari

University of Crete

Abstract

Education is called upon to play a crucial role in the European Union political objectives to meet contemporary socioeconomic and environmental challenges derived from the crises (e.g. financial, COVID-19, war). Therefore, education as a common policy realm promotes integration and at the same time is based on the sense of belonging and EU common values, which are associated with educational process in EU and Greece at all education levels. In addition, education as policy realm and process as well has been fundamental in the process of EU common identity, responsible and democratic citizenship in European community and member states. This paper outlines the policy evolution of European education policy and its linkage with social and political participation towards EU citizenship. Moreover, a thorough analysis of European integration and policy cohesion in higher education level is taking place towards the objectives set out in Bologna process. The paper focuses on the common policy process in education policy realms and its implications in Greece Higher Education System in combination with the political discourse for civic education and social literacy towards a democratic citizenship approach and outcome in Greece.

Keywords: European integration, civic education, education policy, higher education policy, lifelong learning

1. Introduction

The Treaty of Rome (1957) constitutes a milestone for the EU, as it has rendered the vision of a United Europe a reality. The importance of the EU both as a unification process as well as its political undertaking is unique globally. Contemporaneously, it is of great interest for the academic world and especially for scholars from the field of Political Science and European Studies. This, however, becomes even more significant if we take into account the concerns about unification that exist for the EU over time and the dialogue that is evolving for its future after its 60^th birthday in 2017, after Brexit, the financial crisis outcomes, covid-19 and peace as well. It is therefore necessary to use European studies as an essential analytical tool in order to analyze the institutional setting, the political responses to crises and to shape the common future (Taylor, 2010).

What is crucial is that a number of fundamental principles such as peace, solidarity and freedom have already been achieved between Member States (MS). These values have been set since the beginning of the unification process as the ultimate base of common ideas. Yet, despite the great strides made towards European unification, many issues remain a problem even today (Chourdakis & Taliouris, 2018). The debate on the deepening or widening of the Europeanization process and the dilemma of more or less Europe, in line with the debate on a more political or more democratic Union, are areas for reflection and debate at a Member State level. The example of the United Kingdom (known as Brexit) cannot but influence the process of unification today in combination with uncertain risks that took place after economic crises such as Covid-19.

The reference to the unification process is in itself didactic both at a historical and state level because it demonstrates the complexity and difficulty of the EU project since the end of World War II and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Peace among MS all these years and especially after WWII (Kershaw, 2015) is synchronized with the recognition that a common European and democratic perspective is viable among states and European political parties (Tsardanidis, 2016). It is important to note that in the context of unification, the need for peace and cooperation coexisted with competition between the states and their national strategies (as it still does today) in terms of the style of unification and its extent (Tsardanidis, 2016; Sakellaropoulos, 2016). Nevertheless, the fact that the unification is based on policy realms (e.g. trade, Euro, education) and the method of peace from Treaty of Rome in 1957 and the establishment of the European Economic Community up till the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009 (Nugent, 2009; EP, 2017).

What is emerging, however, is the need to deepen the concept of a united Europe and to understand its institutional framework from the top to the bottom and in particular citizens. The sense of European citizenship both as an idea and in combination with its practical implications is necessary especially in crisis times, because the information about EU institutional setting in combination with the weaknesses to promote common political achievements sometimes, may reinforce the wave of questioning and mistrust of the EU’s. The latter is based on the general political discourse regarding a more democratic institutional setting for EU in decision making process (Fragonikopoulos, 2016). The political discourse about the democratic framework in EU and its improvement is a topic towards unification process in order European citizen to ensure belongings to EU and to deal successfully common risks (e.g. Covid-19), that goes beyond member states. Furthermore, informed citizens involved in the common issues of the Union, most important of all is EU Parliament direct elections. The participation is gradually declining in turn out in EU (1979: 61.99%, 2014: 42.61%, 2019: 50.66%) and member states like Greece (e.g. 1981: 81.48%, 2014: 59,97%, 2019: 58.69%)[1]. This fact in EU and in member states too is also pictured in the Eurobarometer (485) in 2020, when asked what would make them more inclined to vote in the next European Parliament elections. Most of the Europeans are most likely to agree with the need “for more information for the impact of EU in their lives” (79%, Greece: 82%) and “for information regarding political parties and candidates” (79%, Greece: 83%), “more involvement of EU citizens in decision-making processes” (74%, Greece: 81%),).

The education as a topic and in particular as a common policy realm is an issue that this paper will focus at EU level and Greece as well. Education as a common policy topic is interesting because promotes integration at specific policy issues and at the same time is based on the sense of belonging and common values, which effectively derived via educational process. In addition, education has been fundamental in the process of the construction of the Union as a cohesive community (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008: 158). This paper seeks to highlight the importance of the Bologna Process and the contribution of Erasmus program as a “tool” for the promotion of the European dimension and the objectives set out in the Bologna process. Therefore it will analyze the common policy in Education and its implications in Greece and will discuss the issue of citizenship both as a right and educational topic and outcome in Greece. Can civic education contribute to the promotion and strengthening of belonging to the European Union?

This paper methodologically is based on the literature review and archive research in order to examine the impact of educational common policy topic in Greece and to discuss the issue of citizenship and participation as a fact and as a course in Greek educational system. The use of research and polls via Eurobarometer are used in this paper in order to discuss the issue of EU citizenship in daily people lives through the linkage with Educational policy of EU and its impact in Greece.

2. The development of European education policy

The need to develop and promote civic education is imperative and coincides with the maturation of European education policy. However, the Union had not an interest in education from its outset. Thus, the process of the shaping of the European education policy has not been fully in line with the process of European integration (Chourdakis, 2020). The priority of the founding treaties (ECSC, EEC, EAEC) of the Community after the end of the Second World War concerned issues of an economic nature, as in none of the founding treaties of the European Communities was there any reference to education, which until then remained a national "affair" (Asderaki, 2008: 150). Thus, the process of the shaping of the European education policy took place in slow steps, at least in the first stages (Zmas, 2007: 22)

In the late 1960s and early 1970s there was an intense mobility as regards the effort to develop the European dimension of education. On 15 October 1968, the Council Regulation was signed, laying the foundations for a European education policy and a European labor market, emphasizing the importance of free movement of workers within the common market (Moschonas, 2001). In 1976, the EEC Ministers of Education approved the first Community action program in the field of education (Tsaousis, 2007; Govaris & Roussakis, 2008: 13).

In the following years, several initiatives were implemented (adoption of the Erasmus program, the resolution of the Ministers of Education of 24 May 1988 on the European dimension in education, Council Directive 89/48 on the recognition of higher education diplomas, etc.) to the direction of European education policy. The initiative of the Rectors of European Universities to sign the Magna Charta Universitatum in 1988, confirms that the Bologna Declaration was not an initiative that started abruptly, but there was a "prehistory" (Zgaga, 2007). Particularly important was the signing of the Sorbonne Declaration (1998) in the promotion of the European dimension in higher education, acting as a harbinger of the Bologna Declaration and marking the "turn" of education policy in higher education. The importance given today at an international level to the contribution of higher education to the social and economic progress of modern societies (Lavdas, 2009: 231; Peters, 2007: 133; Asderaki, 2010; Huisman et al, 2012: 84) places it anyway at the center of scientific and political interest.

In 1995, the Commission published the White Paper on Education and Training titled "Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society"[2] (EC, 1995: 1, as cited in Papadakis, 2006: 60-61). The Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)[3] confirms the European interest in education. Articles 149 and 150 of Chapter III "Education, Vocational Training and Youth" are now (according to the new numbering) the basis for Community action in the field of general education and vocational training (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008: 16- 17), while they also lay the foundations for the formation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA).

It is a fact that, in some areas, policy-making is gradually shifting at as European level (Lavdas, Papadakis, Gidarakou, 2007). However, it should be noted that the supranational policies developed and the actions of supranational organizations have limited the national sovereignty of the state, defining vital points of politics within its national territory (Serafetinidou, 2004: 314). Aghion and Roulet (2012) refer to the weakening of the state and its new role which is equivalent to a "less state" status, while Dale and Robertson (2015) argue that the state has ceased to be considered as the sole actor in policy making. In fact, according to Chang & Lee (2010), the emergence of the concept of supranational organization is associated with the inability of countries to deal with certain international problems individually. On the one hand, the existence of common problems and on the other hand the inability of countries to deal with them within their national borders (European Commission, 2017), created the need for a new policy model based on international-supranational cooperation.

The launch of the Bologna Process in June 1999 was the most important initiative for European cooperation in the field of higher education, with the aim of creating a common EHEA. The evolution of the Bologna Process, as reflected through the meetings, the ministerial announcements (Bologna, Prague, Berlin, Bergen, London, Leuven-la-Nev, Budapest and Vienna, Bucharest, Yerevan, Paris, Rome) and the reformation attempts shapes a new international reference framework (Chourdakis, 2020). The Bologna Process is arguably the most important transnational initiative for higher education at "European" level, influencing higher education systems outside Europe (Huisman, et al., 2012). The Bologna Process symbolizes a form of international cooperation in higher education policy, with a significant impact both on the way higher education operates in Europe and in countries and regions outside Europe (Zahavi & Friedman, 2019). It is notable, that in Africa, the Bologna Process is proposed as a model of regional cooperation in higher education (Woldegiorgis, et al., 2015). This is essentially the first collective effort[4], with a clear political character (Tsaousis, 2007: 391) and a special dynamic (Kladis, 2000: 8-9).

At the same time, at the Lisbon European Council of March 2000, the goal was "to make Europe the most competitive and dynamic economy in the world" (European Council, 2000), thus recognizing the importance of the role of education (Nikolaou, 2008: 28- 29). The Lisbon Strategy was a major step in the construction of European education policy, inaugurating a period marked by a series of European Councils and other initiatives (E&T2010, the Copenhagen Process, the Reform of the Lisbon Strategy, the action plan for Lifelong Learning 2007-2013-Comenius, Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci, Grundtvig sub-programs, Transversal program, Jean Monnet program, etc.)[5]. As the Lisbon Strategy’s successor, the Europe 2020 strategy was the new ten-year EU strategy for a "smart, sustainable and inclusive growth" (European Commission, 2010; Feronas, 2013), whereas the adoption of the new strategic framework for European cooperation titled “Education & Training 2020” (E&T 2020) in May 2009 set a number of indicators for education to be achieved by 2020.

The above initiatives form the framework for the development of European education policy and reflect the awareness of the need to create the European Higher Education Area.

3. Education, integration and civic education: the imprint of the Bologna Declaration in the Greek higher education

The growing interest of the EU and international organizations in education translated into declarative texts, transnational collaborations and decisions. The decision-making process took into account both the EU guidelines and the reports of international organizations such as the OECD (Lavdas, 2009), while the policy on higher education was catalyzed by the existence of educational policies developed at European level (Stamelos, 2009: 165). Especially after the signing of the Bologna Declaration, policy planning evolved from national to European level (Papadakis, et al, 2012). At the same time, MS participating in the Bologna Process sought to implement reforms.

In the first years after the signing of the Bologna Declaration, Greece was inactive in advancing the goals set at the Bologna Ministerial Conference in 1999. The will of the governments to base the policy on higher education in the Bologna Declaration and the emerging trends at European level (Papazoglou, 2009: 47), were not directly transformed into legislation.

Gradually, reforms began to take place. More specifically, an attempt was made to internationalize the Greek higher education. A number of undergraduate and postgraduate programs began to promote the European and international dimension, while the contribution of Erasmus actions and other bilateral or multilateral agreements in this direction has been significant (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2015). With Law 3391/2005, as amended and in force with the provisions of Law 4610/2019, the International University of Greece (IHU) was established, with the mission of providing higher education especially to foreigners who are interested in studying in Greece. Paragraph 5 of article 4 of Law 4485/2017, refers to the mission of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to promote cooperation with other educational institutions and research bodies at home and abroad.

At the same time, the Greek higher education seeks to increase mobility. The support actions of the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY), the actions of Erasmus + and the legislative regulations (such as article 27 of L.4009/2011 and L.4485/2017) seem to contribute to this direction. Regarding mobility, the EHEA countries, according to the Bologna Process Implementation Report 2018, have about 810,000 students studying abroad. Greece has a significant number of outgoing students within EHEA, reaching 32,719 and approximately 2,446 students in countries outside EHEA (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2018: 256).

Regarding the adoption of three study cycles that was set as a goal at the Bergen Summit, paragraph 1 of article 30 of Law 4009/2011 defines the structure of studies for the Greek system of higher education in three cycles.

With the enactment of article 4 of Law 3328/2005[6], as amended and replaced by the provisions of article 39, par.17 of L.4186 / 2013 and article 82, par.7 L.4485 / 2017, the restructuring of the competent body (DIKATSA) and the establishment and operation of the "Hellenic National Academic Recognition and Information Center "(DOATAP) was decided, which is a member of the NARIC network of academic recognition and information, promoting the goal of easy recognition of qualifications within EHEA.

With Law 3374/2005[7] the establishment of the European Credit Transfer System - ECTS and the Diploma Supplement are decided (Papazoglou, 2009), thus promoting one of the first goals set in the Bologna Declaration. As mentioned in the implementation report of Bologna (2018) Greece is one of the EHEA countries, in which 100% of higher education institutions apply the ECTS for the first and second cycle of studies while the largest percentage of university institutions in the country has connected the credit system with learning outcomes and the workload of students (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2018: 52-53).

The enactment of Law 3374/2005 has contributed to the implementation of the goal "for the development of national quality assurance systems and the evaluation of the quality of higher education institutions" (Prague Communique, 2001). Coordination at national level is undertaken by the Authority of Quality Assurance (ADIP)[8], as an independent administrative authority, while in each institution a Quality Assurance Unit (MODIP) is established, which undertakes the task of coordinating and supporting the evaluation procedures of each institution. With article 64 of L.3374/2005, the Authority was renamed to «Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency» (HQA)[9] and constitutes the Greek representation in the European Network for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA).

The promotion of lifelong learning and its connection with higher education is a key objective of the Bologna Process (Chourdakis, 2020). In Greece, the debate on the inclusion of lifelong learning in the functional grid of higher education began in 2001 (Papadakis, 2009), however, the institutionalization of the Lifelong Learning System (LLS) came four years later with the enactment of Law 3369/2005[10]. In 2010 Law 3879/2010 "Development of Lifelong Learning and other provisions" was enacted. This law has been the most comprehensive legislative initiative to formulate a unified national strategy for Lifelong Learning, drawing up a National Lifelong Learning Program (NLLP). At the same time, it recognized higher education institutions as actors in the National Lifelong Learning Network, and Article 16 establishes the National Qualifications Framework, which "recognizes and correlates the learning outcomes of all forms of formal education, non-formal education and non-formal learning" so that they are certified and classified at levels corresponding to the levels of the European Qualifications Framework "(article 16, par. 1, Law 3879/2010).

The connection of the Greek higher education with lifelong learning is confirmed by the enactment of Law 4485/2017. Article 48 abolishes the Lifelong Learning Institutes of educational Institutions and the operating Vocational Training Centers and in their place it provides for the establishment of a Training and Lifelong Learning Centers (KEDIVIM) in each HEI with the aim of "coordination and interdisciplinary cooperation in the development of training programs, continuing education, training and, in general, lifelong learning".

4. The role of lifelong learning programs in the promotion of civic education

There is no doubt that education and democracy are strongly connected by an interaction relationship (Rowland, 2003; Tzagkarakis & Kritas, 2020). Education, training and lifelong learning constitute central pillars as far as the shaping of the European area and the development of European consciousness is concerned. Lifelong learning is an important strategy of Europe and plays crucial role in the creation of a learning European society (Kula & Penkovska, 2010). The primary goal of education, as Edith Cresson (Commission, 2000b) has pointed out, is to develop human skills and an integrated personality, providing all citizens with the opportunity to participate as much as possible in cultural, economic, political and social life. The need to develop and promote civic education is imperative and coincides with the maturation of European education policy. In addition the development of civic education could be an effective step towards more inclusive education (Dias & Soares, 2018). The stimulation and enrichment of state education in Greece and its better correlation with political and social issues in the EU cannot be satisfied at the level of secondary education or postsecondary education. Rather, it is imperative that lifelong learning and professional programs are incorporated in the Greek educational system that can be related to informational activities or booklets such as "Europe in 12 lessons" (2014) of Pascal Fontaine, which is available in policy areas (e.g., environment) and its is free of charge through the EU bookshop.

Undoubtedly, there are many countries in all over the world that have recognized the importance of education and its contribution to developing free, democratic and responsible citizens (Tzagkarakis & Kritas, 2020). In fact, given that one of the main aims of education is to ‘produce’ democratic, free, responsible and active European citizens, civic education can make a decisive contribution in the promotion of active European citizenship. Already from the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) reference has been made to the image of a more active and participatory European citizen (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008, p. 158). The Greek Constitution[11] states something similar for the purpose of education (§2 No.16:

"Education is a basic mission of the state and aims at the moral, spiritual, professional and physical education of the Greeks, the development of national and religious consciousness and their transformation into free and responsible citizens")

(Taliouris & Chourdakis, 2017).

A number of education programs have worked and continue to play a key role in the shaping of European citizenship. For example, the Socrates, Youth for Europe and Leonardo da Vinci programs brought the citizens of the member states in touch with the European area and helped them familiarize with the concept of active European citizen and the importance of the European dimension of education (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008, p.159). Indeed, they increased the opportunities for personal experience in other European countries, strengthened the sense of a common European identity and cultivated the ability to adapt to changes in the economic and social environment (Commission, 2000). Erasmus plus continues to contribute a lot in this direction, giving the opportunity to thousands of European citizens every year (pupils, students, teaching staff) to study, work, teach, train and be educated, enjoying as European citizens the privileges that derive from this action. This investment in knowledge, skills and abilities will benefit individuals, institutions, organizations and society as a whole, contributing to the social prosperity and development of Europe in general, cultivating European citizenship and developing European culture, while at the same time contributing to the achievement of the goals of the European strategy EU 2020, concerning a smart, sustainable and inclusive development (European Commission, 2010).

At the same time, these programs could contribute at national and European level, recalling the fundamental role of education and lifelong learning in the promotion of integration and development of civic education. The Erasmus+ Program, transcending the initial objectives of increasing the mobility of persons, transfers and incorporates ideas and values ​​aimed at strengthening the European idea, while confirming that "the European idea of ​​free movement of capital, goods, services and people was gradually transferred to education” (De Wit & Verhoeven, 2001: 204). As mentioned above, the lack of knowledge of citizens regarding the European Union is an issue that requires solutions. Erasmus+ Program is an attempt to tackle this issue in order to increase citizens’ active participation in the political and social life of the Union, reaffirming the contribution of education and lifelong learning. At the same time, Erasmus+ supports the active participation of European citizens in democratic life, while emphasis is placed on raising awareness and understanding of the European Union framework, in particular on the EU's common values and principles of unity and diversity. It is recalled that the Erasmus program aims to provide knowledge of the European reality and thus to expand the basis for intensive cooperation in the economic and social field of the Community (Moschonas, 2001: 703).

In the youth field, a Youth Participation Strategy has been designed to provide a common framework and support the use of the Program to promote youth participation in democratic life^[12]. Undoubtedly, Erasmus+ has already contributed to the creation of the European Higher Education Area and has the potential to contribute to the development of civic education, as it has contributed to the promotion of important Bologna goals, as mobility, attractiveness and recognition of courses in higher education institutions in other countries (Tsaousis, 2007: 410). The Erasmus 2021-2027 ensures the continuation of the Erasmus+ programme for education, while Erasmus+ 2014-2020 is estimated to offer mobility opportunities to more than 4 million people. The new generation programme maintains a lifelong learning approach and works towards the adoption of a European Education Area by 2025 (European Parliament, 2021), reaffirming the link between the Bologna Process and the Erasmus programme.

In 2013, the European Commission set up a survey for the 20 years of European Citizenship that 81% of citizens declared that they are aware of the fact that they are EU citizens but only 36% are aware of their rights. In 2016, another survey in Flash Eurobarometer (430)[13] participants in Greece answered the same question replied by 88% that they are familiar with European citizenship and in EU the 87%. Nevertheless, the need for more and more accurate information regarding the issue of citizenship was important on behalf of participants and this was pictured in question "how well informed about your rights do you feel as a citizen EU?" and the answer “Not informed" (63%: Greece and 57%: EU answers"). This answer indicates a declination of people declared not informed from 68% in 2007 to 57% in EU, which might be caused on the political discourse regarding the Lisbon treaty, its ratification in 2009 and the financial crisis from 2010 in EU and the role of its institutions, their political tools and the member states. Another interesting topic of discussion was the question about the potential actions that that can be taken, when people EU rights are being violated, in which the answer “we do not know” is 75% in Greece and 72% in EU. However, the following paradox is observed. Despite the fact that European and Greek citizens say they are familiar with European citizenship and despite their successes and achievements in the 65 years of the EU. In addition, they find it difficult to identify with the processes of European integration.

The need for civic education can explain this paradox. Greek citizens and EU as well need to increase their familiarity with EU institutions know little about the EU institutions, the actions and the rights-privileges that derive from being a European citizen in daily life. At the same time, the consequences of social exclusion and poverty the last decade in Greece in combination with the negative socioeconomic outcomes of Covid-19 have reminded us that education and training can play an important role in promoting social inclusion and equality, fostering mutual respect and integrating fundamental values ​​into an open and democratic society. Education and training can be the basis upon which citizenship is based (Commission, 2015, p.2). The development of civic education is therefore imperative for the acquisition of comprehensive knowledge of European affairs that will contribute to the development of an active and democratic European and Greek citizenship as well. Such a process is required to have a continuous character (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008, p.160) in the context of lifelong learning programs both in post secondary education and higher education level in Greece.

As Professor Andreas Kazamias stated:

"The necessity of shaping the democratic citizen in the context of the educational process has been widely pointed out by political scientists-philosophers, social scientists and other researchers since the era of the ancient democratic city (polis-kratos) to the modern era of the multicultural Cosmopolis of the late modernity" (Kazamias, 2014)

The need for a more comprehensive, more substantial effort in the development of civic education was emphasized, so that the European citizen could understand the importance of his/her active participation as regards the development of European culture, democratic participation and responsible citizenship in people and groups (e.g., business sector) (Taliouris, 2016). Political participation is a prerequisite for the exercise of citizenship and is intertwined with the ability to think critically and participate in public consultation (Sioufa, 2013, p. 85).

Civic education offers the opportunity to Greek and European citizens to get to know the rights and privileges offered by the EU, while at the same time it helps them grasp the importance of their active participation in it. In essence, it gives them the opportunity to develop their European citizenship. Europe and the ongoing social, political and economic changes that are taking place shape the characteristics of the "young citizen", who is required to be more democratic, more responsible and fully active, ready to act and take initiatives (EC, 2000). In this context, a set of policy proposals emerges that aim to fill the gaps mentioned above by bibliographic and archival research, theoretical research and the study of primary and secondary sources and analyses. Education can re-orientate civic education using formal and informal educational methods as well as experiences of active participation (Tzagkarakis & Kritas, 2020). Specifically, as Papanoutsos had suggested, the subject of "Civic Education" could be more dynamically included in the curricula (Kazamias, 2014) secondary and post secondary of education.

The introduction of the course in all secondary education grades is crucial as it introduces the concept of citizenship in the EU and Greece. In addition, it is considered crucial for democracy, given that the lack of education on rights and obligations of an organized state, such as Greece and Europe. At the same time, the development of the course could have the characteristics of Social Literacy that is found in Life Long Learning and adult education at secondary level (eg environment, culture, history). Since 2015, the sociology course and the citizenship course has been introduced as specialization for Teaching personnel (P70) that graduates sociology, political science, law etc. The paradox in Greece is that these courses are not obligatory for the national examination bar for the entrance in the University and in particular for Schools in social sciences, administration and law. Moreover, one of the priority areas for European cooperation and integration in the field of the common policy in education and training is the development of social skills and competences with an emphasis on learning outcomes such as citizenship, employability, innovation (European Commission, 2015).

5. Conclusion

The economic crisis in EU was a significant milestone for member states and people to understand that common policy solutions in common financial risks and national debts (e.g. Greece), were both national and European at the same time. Education and policy cohesion through common activities, curriculum and exchanging programmes and ideas indicated that the “better together” is difficult but a prerequisite to deal with risks. Therefore, the common policy in Education has an overall outcome, which is mainly based on the belongings in EU community. Moreover, Covid-19 accelerated the integration process in health policy issues and use more effectively the existing network of educational policy especially in universities and research institutes. The capitalization of EU and Greek citizens common educational policy became more viable because significant policy measures regarding research and health policy had taken faster compared to EU political response during financial crisis (2009-2019).The new Green Deal and the European actions for Sustainable Development Goals 2030 are important steps in order EU to be set as an international pole of excellence in those topics. The responsible European citizenship both for people, consumers and business sector is also a topic that needs to be associated with educational process in Greece.

Hence, the Flash Euro barometer 502 for the European Youth Year pictures this attitude in participants and specifically about their expectations for their generation from European Union. International security and solidarity (37%), social inclusion (32%), job opportunities (33%), environmental sustainability (31%) are the main topics. Moreover, Education as a policy field in combination with the political dimensions of citizenship seems to affect youth in Europe and Greece. Erasmus + in Universities and Secondary Education level is popular among the participants in Greece and EU as well as for practitioners in vocational training and lifelong learning programmes. The political issues that derive from this survey are the need to participate in elections at all EU and national administration levels (39%, 37% in Greece), the participation in public dialogues via social media (30%, 27% in Greece), participation in deliberations (23%, 29% in Greece), political parties (25%, 17% in Greece) and NGOs (19%, 30% in Greece). Therefore, the issue on citizenship in combination with education has positive results as policy fields in Greece that need to be empowered in order to be more competitive and less fragile in crisis times. Education and knowledge sector in Greece must be empowered financially and the introduction of civic education and social literacy will improve the sense of belongings in EU in combination with the “right to know” by being capable enough to understand the institutional and democratic setting in Europe and member states. It should be noted, that the existence of a right to participate in economic, political and social life does not automatically lead to the exercise of that right (Govaris & Roussakis, 2008, p.159-160).

The issue of civic education is considered to have not received due attention. Education policy, taking advantage mainly of the dynamics of the Bologna, can mobilize Member States to promote policy, aiming at strengthening EU citizenship and participation. It is indicative that the Bologna process today symbolizes a form of international cooperation in higher education policy, with a significant impact both on the way higher education operates in Europe and in countries and regions outside it (Zahavi & Friedman, 2019). As can be seen from the reform efforts of the participating countries (Bologna Process Implementation Reports 2012; 2015; 2018), the role of the Bologna in shaping EHEA and the way higher education works in Europe have been crucial (Zahavi & Friedman, 2019), as they provoked significant mobility in the participating countries in order to achieve "better compatibility and comparability" in national higher education systems.

At the same time, the objectives for the promotion of lifelong learning, as expressed through the Lisbon Strategy and the Europe 2020 Strategy, are linked to the objectives set in Bologna, an indication of the momentum that the Bologna Process has acquired, especially with the involvement of the European Commission in the Process, but also an indication of the maturation of the European education policy. Taking advantage of this "conjuncture", civic education can be promoted both "European" and nationally, thus contributing to both integration and the creation of active and democratic citizens.

The need for immediate implementation of all the above is perhaps more obvious than ever at European level and Greece in order citizens to acquire a European conscience in future common risks. In Greece in particular, it is important that the course of "civic education" in the context of formal education is mandatory, especially for the scientific fields of law and social sciences, while in general it should be strategically linked to other experiential activities in education such as the student newspaper, student council elections, educational trips, school holidays and social activities (eg charity, school library). If the citizens of the EU want to meet one of the greatest challenges of all time and build together a peaceful and integrated Europe (Commission, 2000), they need to become "more European sensitive", more democratically responsible and more politically active. At EU level, one of the common goals set for addressing the challenges in education and training systems by 2020 was to promote equality, social cohesion and active participation in the public, according to the Education and Training Program 2020 (Commission, 2013).

Crises empower EU and indicate that educational policy is a policy tool to strength EU citizenship and participation, while the political response of Next Generation EU (NGEU) recovery plan (806,9 billion €) by 2027 is a tool towards that. The NGEU budget will work on top of the EU long-term budget of €1.074 trillion for the programming period 2021-2027 and it is divided in policy realms: Make It Green, Make it Digital, Make it Healthy, Make it Strong, Make it Equal.

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Notes:

[1] https://www.europarl.europa.eu/election-results-2019/en/turnout/

[2] European Commission, Directorate General Education, Training and Youth, Teaching and Learning, 1995.

[3] (97 / C 340/01) Treaty of Amsterdam, 10.11.1997

[4] There were initiatives for European cooperation in the field of Higher Education prior to the Bologna Declaration. For the first efforts of European educational cooperation, see Tsaousis, 2007: 421-423.

[5] For more details, see. Nikolaou, 2009: 113-125

[6] Law 3328/2005 (Government Gazette 80 / A / 1.4.2005), Interdisciplinary Organization for the Recognition of Academic Degrees and Information and other provisions.

[7] N. 3374/2005 (Government Gazette A / 189 / 2.8.2005), Quality assurance in higher education. Credit Transfer and Accumulation System - Diploma Supplement.

[8] For the Quality Assurance bodies in Higher Education in Greece, seehttps://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/quality-assurance-higher-education-27_el

[9] For ADIP, see. https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/quality-assurance-higher-education-27_el

[10] LAW 3369/2005 - Government Gazette 171 / A '/ 6.7.2005 "Systematization of lifelong learning and other provisions".

[11] Constitution of Greece (2019) Revised - Government Gazette 211 / Α / 24-12-2019

[12] For more details, see. https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/programme-guide/part-a/priorities-of-the-erasmus-programme

[13] https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2101

Corresponding Author:

Marinos Chourdakis, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Geece. Contact Address: mchourdakis@hmu.gr

Authors:

Marinos Chourdakis (Political Scientist, MSc, PhD) Adjunct Lecturer at the Hellenic Mediterranean University, Greece

Evangelos Taliouris (Political Scientist, MSc, PhD) Adjunct Lecturer at the Hellenic Mediterranean University, Greece

Georgia Dimari (Political Scientist,MSc, PhD) Adjunct Lecturer at the University of Crete, Greece

Copyright @ 2022, Marinos Chourdakis, Evangelos Taliouris and Georgia Dimari

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