Historical Context
Both Judaism and Zoroastrianism emerged in a region (Mesopotamia and the Near East) that had been dominated by the worship of idols and patron gods (for example, Marduk was the patron god of Babylon). Worship of these gods revolved around ritual practices performed by a priestly class. This was also a region a period (especially in the Late Bronze Age) of frequent cultural exchange, migration, and warfare—first between the city-states of Mesopotamia and then between larger states and empires like Babylon and Assyria.
While adherents of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism all sought to break the cycle of reincarnation, other religions concerned themselves more with ideas about morality and good vs evil. Both Zoroastrianism and Judaism emerged around the same time in roughly the same region (the Middle East) and emphasized a belief in a supreme god—Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism and Yahweh in Judaism. This emphasis has led many scholars to argue that these religions were the world’s first monotheistic religions (although there is not total agreement on that idea, and monotheism did not necessarily develop all at once), and it seems that Zoroastrian beliefs likely impacted Judaism to some degree. In both religions, humans have free will to make decisions and must be responsible for those behaviors. Like many religions, both Judaism and Zoroastrianism also focus on human morality and ethics, defining what constitutes proper or “good” behavior.
Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster, the Greek version of the name Zarathustra, an ancient Persian spiritual leader who lived between 1500 and 1000 BCE. One of the world’s oldest continuously practiced creeds, Zoroastrianism became the official religion of the Persian Empire. It was based on the Manichean idea of a dualistic universe divided between good and evil, and even though it promoted monotheism, it acknowledged the existence of two deities, Ahura Mazda, benevolent and good, and Angra Mainyu (or Ahiram), deceitful and wicked. Each was supported by lesser supernatural beings. On the side of Ahura Mazda were the ahuras who worked to bring good to the world, and on the side of Angra Mainyu were the daevas who served the interests of evil. Each individual was believed to have free will and the ability to choose between good and evil, which ultimately determined his or her fate. Zoroastrianism states that active and ethical participation in life through “good deeds, good thoughts, and good words” is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. Life’s purpose is to bring happiness into the world, contributing to the cosmic battle against evil.
Followers of Zoroastrianism believed Ahura Mazda had created the world as an entirely good place. However, Angra Mainyu was dedicated to destroying this perfection with evil, so the two forces fought for the supremacy of good or evil on Earth. The chaotic world around them was the product of this pitched battle. However, the fight would not last forever. At some appointed time in the future, Ahura Mazda would overcome the forces of Angra Mainyu, and the followers of evil would face judgment and punishment for their crimes. It was up to humans to decide for themselves what path to follow. At the final judgment, the dead would be resurrected and made to walk through a river of fire. Those consumed by the fire were unworthy and would be condemned to torment in hell, while those who survived would live forever in a paradise with no evil.
In the years after Zoroaster’s death, his ideas spread and changed. For example, the Medes incorporated their own priestly class into Zoroastrian traditions. The Persians borrowed artistic traditions from the Mesopotamians to depict Ahura Mazda in the same way they styled their important gods. Later, Judeans followers of Judaism incorporated many Zoroastrian ideas into their own religious traditions. These ideas went on to influence both Christianity and Islam.
Fundamental to an understanding of the Jewish religion is the concept of the Covenant, an agreement that people believed to exist between themselves and God. According to the Hebrew Bible, God first appeared and made a covenant with Abraham and then Moses. These early leaders and later individuals such as Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah who mediated between God and the Hebrew people were known as "prophets." Much of the Hebrew Bible consists of writings in their voices, understood as messages from God to which the Hebrews were to listen. In time, the doctrine emerged that Yahweh was the exclusive god of the Jews who had chosen them as his instrument to establish his sacred law on earth and to fulfill his holy plan for humankind. Jewish women and men were to obey the commands, rituals, and dietary rules that God set forth. No longer were humans just pawns of fickle gods. The moral conduct of individuals determined their fate. One’s relationship to God was in one’s own hands.
The stories and beliefs of the Israelites were eventually written down by the priestly class in the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh, also called the Old Testament). True monotheism (the worship of one god) likely developed over time from earlier polytheistic traditions. At first, Yahweh was likely one supreme god among many other deities. The monotheistic tradition of Judaism mostly emerged when the Israelites were exiled to Babylon after being defeated by the Neo-Babylonians. Many Israelites saw this fate as a punishment from God for failing to properly follow the commandments. It was in Babylon that much of the core portion of the Hebrew Bible was being edited and assembled. And in Babylon, Judaism likely came in contact with, and was influenced by, ideas from Zoroastrianism. By the time the Judeans were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple, the basic framework of what we understand today as Judaism had emerged and been largely accepted. As Jerusalem grew, Jewish traditions adapted from an agricultural to an increasingly urban life. The Jews (or people from Judah) were expected to worship only Yahweh, live moral lives, and closely follow the laws of Moses (the Ten Commandments). They were prohibited from murdering, stealing, and committing adultery. They were barred from consuming specific foods such as pork, and food had to be properly prepared (kosher), which included ritual slaughter for animals. Jewish people were also prohibited from working on the seventh day of the week (the Sabbath). And of course there were important rules about the worship of Yahweh, including loving him, fearing him, emulating him, and not profaning his name.