The Seljuk Empire

Despite their nomadic roots, the Seljuks sought to restore Islamic law and unite Sunni and Shia Muslims under a stable political order. Their empire blended Turkish military power, the spiritual authority of the Arab caliph and ulama (religious scholars), and Persian administrative systems, philosophy, and arts. They continued the practice of using Turkic mamluks as a key component of their military, while also relying heavily on a Persian bureaucracy and culture. 

The state was decentralized, with semi-independent kingdoms governed by atabegs (provincial governors) under the sultan’s authority. High-ranking viziers (often Persian) oversaw civil and religious affairs, while ulama established madrasas (Islamic universities) to promote unity. Administration relied on the iqtaʿ system, in which tax-collection rights were granted to military or religious officials in exchange for maintaining troops for the sultan. Iqtaʿ were state-owned, non-hereditary, and unlike European fiefs, gave no direct control over peasants. 

Non-Muslims were granted dhimmi status—freedom of religion and local autonomy in exchange for the jizya tax—though Muslims were favored for government posts, encouraging many nobles to convert and intermarry with Turkish families. Over time, succession disputes, Shia resentment, and the growing autonomy of provincial governors weakened central power and led to fragmentation. Like many Turkic and Islamic dynasties, the Seljuks had no fixed rule of succession. Rival claimants to the throne, often backed by powerful atabegs or military factions, fought for power, further fracturing the empire and hastening its decline.

Seljuk society was marked by a cultural synthesis of Persian, Islamic, and Turkic traditions. Rulers commissioned mosques, palaces, hospitals, and schools in Islamic architectural styles, drawing on Persian and Greek Christian artisans. Isfahan became a cultural hub, home to libraries, observatories, and scholars producing works on science, mathematics, geography, and philosophy. The Seljuks protected trade along the Silk Roads, building caravanserais and welcoming pilgrims and merchants of all religions. Cultural exchange also flowed through their encounters with Crusaders, enriching Mediterranean trade and introducing new goods and ideas to Europe. One of the most influential figures of the Seljuk period was the Persian Sufi poet Rumi, whose mystical writings emphasized divine unity, tolerance, and spiritual love, and who founded the “whirling dervishes,” a Sufi order blending Turkish music and dance with worship.

At the time of the First Crusade, the Seljuks were preoccupied with internal divisions and with gaining control over neighbors and therefore did not mount a unified defense against the Crusaders. However, the Crusades did not have a huge impact on the Islamic world. It was not until later Crusades that Muslims became more unified to face the Crusaders. However, by helping spark the Crusades, the Turks were indirectly responsible for increasing European involvement in long distance trade. Seljuks, like most Muslim authorities, were broadly benevolent toward pilgrims and merchants due to their profitability; the network of caravansaries for travellers was extended, and pilgrims from all religions were given safe passage. 

Although the Seljuk Empire met its demise around 1300, its cultural and religious transformations (especially the patronage of art and literature) continue to define the region. The successor states of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic are heavily indebted—socially, economically, and religiously— to the Seljuk Empire.