THE LAUFER COLLECTIONS

Chinese Mortuary Figurines in the
Field Museum Anthropology Collections

Written by Michelle Guo, 2022 Boone Scholar for East Asian Studies

生死异路 ; Let the living and dead take separate paths.

Tomb Models: Buildings, Furniture, and Tools

During the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-256 B.C.), the funerary culture in China shifted from a primary focus on temples to tombs, which led to the creation of mortuary objects with tomb-based ritualistic meaning. [1]

Míngqì「明器 or 冥器」are one such category of "spirit objects" related to the underworld, encapsulating figurines of mortal beings, statuettes of objects, tomb guardian sculptures, and models of buildings, all of varying sizes and buried in tombs with the deceased. They were first created by the Chu state of the Zhou dynasty. [2]

Mingqi are created solely for the purpose of accompanying the deceased into the afterlife, so that they may continue to enjoy the comforts of their companions, mortal possessions, and whatever else they may need in death. One’s social class determined the quality, type, size, and number of mingqi that they could be buried with. [3]

Figure 1. Male Attendant Figurine © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_117960_BTFront
Catalog No. 117960
Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

A combination of filial piety and fear encouraged the rise of mingqi in Chinese funerary practice.

Since Chinese society highly valued the act of being filial, children took great care in arranging objects to be placed with their parents’ burials partially as a means of raising their social status. [4] Yet, there was also a widespread fear of ghosts and angry spirits across the different regions of China; thus, grave goods were used to settle, “the volatile and disoriented spirit of the recently dead…to bury a person without proper attention to ritual details is to create a hungry ghost who will return to plague the living.” [5]

The most common materials used to make mingqi were wood and clay, especially terra cotta, which was pressed into molds to form the necessary shape. Materials such as stone, gold, silver, and bronze were also used, albeit less commonly. [6] Some tomb figurines, despite being made of usually perishable materials, have been very effectively preserved over the millennia inside their air-tight, insulated tombs. However, the paint pigment, fabric, and wood on many other tomb figurines have irreparably decayed over time. [7] After the Tang dynasty, paper became the foremost material used. [8]

Mingqi evolved over time in terms of shape, color, and subject matter. The development of the Silk Road led to the incorporation of foreign influences into tomb figurines, including sancai, or “three color glaze” from Central Asia. In addition, popular figurines in China varied by regional locations, over time, and based on the needs and status of the deceased. For instance, the tombs of people that had a lot of contact with Silk Road nomads, merchants, entertainers, etcetera, may have held more foreign figurines (both people and animals) than others in different parts of China. [9]

During Berthold Laufer’s expeditions to China, including the Blackstone Chinese and Tibetan Expedition (1908-1910) and the Captain Marshall Field Ethnological Expedition to China (1923), he collected nearly 600 mingqi, some of which are displayed today in the Field Museum’s Cyrus Tang Hall of China.

Figure 2. Horse with Sancai Glaze
© The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118039_BTFront, Catalog No. 118039, Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

[1] Ligang Zhou, "Obscuring the Line between the Living and the Dead: Mortuary Activities inside the Grave Chambers of the Eastern Han Dynasty, China," Asian Perspectives 54, no. 2 (2016): 238, https://doi.org/10.1353/asi.2016.0006.

[2] Carl Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures: A Study in the Beliefs and Folklore of Ancient China (London: Edward Goldston, 1928), 18

[3] Mary H. Fong, "Tomb-Guardian Figurines: Their Evolution and Iconography." In Ancient Mortuary Traditions of China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary Sculptures, ed. George Kuwayama (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991), 97.

[4] Zhou, "Obscuring the Line," 248.

[5] Watson, James L, "The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elementary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance." In Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, ed. James L Watson and Evelyn S Rawski (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 9.

[6] "As lifelike as possible," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-204/g2-4_m2_b2/as-lifelike-as-possible.

[7] "Here to serve your every need," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-206/g2-6_m1_b6/here-to-serve-your-every-need.

[8] Jeehee Hong, "Mechanism of Life for the Netherworld: Transformations of Mingqi in Middle-Period China," Journal of Chinese Religions 43, no. 2 (November 2015): 162, https://doi.org/10.1179/0737769x15z.00000000023.

[9] "Mimes, musicians, and grooms," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-5/case-501/g5-1_m2_b5/mimes-musicians-and-grooms.

Human Figurines

The origin of mingqi is not absolute. One theory is that mingqi were created as a substitute for live sacrifices. The earliest instance of this practice on record was during the burial of Duke Wu of Ch’in in 678 B.C., who ordered that sixty-six men be buried alive with him upon his death to form his suite in the other world. There have been a number of instances in early Chinese history of elites ordering the death of beings they’d decided they needed in the afterlife, such as their concubines, wives, servants, soldiers, and horses. [10] However, the Zuo Zhuan「左傳」, a narrative that chronicles over 250 years of ancient Chinese history, “specially mentions every instance of human sacrifice [which] seems to indicate the rarity of the event.” [11]

As opined in the work Chinese Tomb Figures, it is, “illogical to separate human statuettes from other tomb figures by attributing to them a different origin.” [12] Live sacrifices would only connect to human and animal figurines, and fails to consider the existence of immortal beings and inanimate objects in tomb figurines. While there are no clear records on the true history of mingqi, it is likely more connected to the Chinese belief in dual souls; one soul stays in your physical body even in death while the other travels to the underworld to begin a new "life." [13]

The majority of mingqi that depict mortal figures were mass-produced using clay molds. Popular mingqi choices for the elites included soldiers, attendants, entertainers, and farmers. The mold formed the body, and the face details were added by hand afterward in order to vary facial features and give personality to the statuettes. [14] Naturalism was the prevalent style for mingqi during the Han dynasty but with the influx of foreigners in the Tang dynasty, artisans started to explore less rigid styles and incorporate international influences into their designs— especially from Central Asia. [15]

[10] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 11.

[11] Ibid, 13.

[12] Ibid, 18.

[13] Ibid, 5.

[14] "Molding a personality," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-206/g2-6_m1_b6/molding-a-personality.

[15] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 78.

Left: Figure 3. Figurine, Male Attendant with Pigmented Clothing © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_117961_BTFront, Catalog No. 117961, Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

Middle : Figure 4. Figurines, Horsewomen © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A108295c, Catalog No. 43888, Photographer Ron Testa

Right: Figure 5. Figurine, Mime Actor © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118021_ATFront, Catalog No. 118021, Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

Chinese artisans in the Tang dynasty were inspired not only by foreign clothing but also the people themselves.

During this period, traders and entertainers from distant lands became a popular subject matter for mingqi, representing a small societal shift towards hedonism. In terms of artistic style, “pronounced action and certain exaggerated proportions,” became more common in Tang era mingqi. [16]

The growing diversity in the populations of large Chinese cities had an effect on the societal trends at that time, especially in the Tang court. International sources brought over clothing, hairstyles, sports, music, and more, which were quickly adopted by the Chinese people. So heavy was the influence, that it pervaded funerary culture as well. Some statuettes depicted Chinese people wearing styles from distant lands, and vice versa. It was not uncommon to see a figurine wearing a mix of clothing from different cultures either. [17]

These mingqi exemplify the beauty standards, art styles, clothing trends, and popular hobbies of their respective dynasties.

[16] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 80.

[17] "Foreign was fashionable," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-3/case-305/g3-5_m1_b3/foreign-was-fashionable.

Animal Figurines

Animals have been symbolically represented in Chinese funerary culture since long before the existence of mingqi. Straw figures of dogs are suspected to be the ancient prototype to dog mingqi; although they were burned after the funeral ceremony rather than buried with the deceased, the meaning was the same in that both dogs were meant to represent a spirit that drove away bad influences. [18] Dogs became one of the most common types of animal mingqi during the Han dynasty. Other notable animals found in mingqi were horses, camels, and donkeys. These animals were needed in the afterlife for travel purposes. Camels appeared less frequently than horses, likely in part due to the popularity of horse imports from foreign countries during the Tang dynasty. Chinese artisans even attempted to sculpt animals they’d never seen before, as in the case of the rhino. Elephants were seen, albeit rarely, in mingqi as well. They were meaningful in that their real life-counterparts were trained to serve in battle; thus, elephant mingqi could’ve served a purpose similar to guardianship. [19]

As early as the third dynasty, effigies of animals were buried with the dead. [20]

Figure 7. Camel Figurine © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118032_BTProperRight
Catalog No. 118032, Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

A special type of animal mingqi were sets of the twelve Chinese zodiac animals, or “duodenary” sets, which were especially popular during the Sui (581-618) and Tang
(618-907) dynasties. [21] The earliest known set is from the year 525 during the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534), belonging to the Cui family of Shandong province. [22] They were typically placed along the sides of the tomb and aligned with the compass points. The coffin would lay in the middle and after correct positioning, “the duodenary series symbolizes cosmic totality and infinity in space and time.” [23]

Within different regions of China, the duodenary set was stylized in a different way. The North preferred an anthropomorphic image, with a human body in scholarly robes and an animal head. People believed that the spirit world was also run by a government, and these anthropomorphic zodiacs were considered to be cosmically powerful. Animal-head figurines represented both the animal spirit and the heavenly official in charge of that animal. [24] In contrast, the South leaned towards shamanistic figures that held the zodiac animal either in their arms or atop their heads. [25] Regardless of the style, duodenary sets were reserved for the burials of high ranking officials only. The twelve zodiac animals together served as a talisman, and it was due to their religious and spiritual meanings that they were gatekept from commoners and lower-ranking officials. [26]

These mingqi show the importance of animals in ancient China, in both a practical and spiritual sense.

[18] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 61.

[19] Ibid, 64-68.

[20] Ibid, 62.

[21] Judy Chungwa Ho, "The Twelve Calendrical Animals in Tang Tombs," In Ancient Mortuary Traditions of China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary Sculptures, ed. George Kuwayama (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991), 60.

[22] Ibid, 73-74.

[23] Ibid, 64.

[24] "An animal or an official?," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-4/case-408/g4-8_m2_b4/an-animal-or-an-official.

[25] Ho, "The Twelve Calendrical Animals," 78.

[26] Ibid, 66.

Tomb Guardians

Figure 9. Beastly Zhenmushou © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 117971_ProperRight, Catalog No. 117971

Zhènmùshòu「镇墓兽」or “tomb guardian beasts” are supernatural beings, positioned at the tomb entrance in pairs to keep watch over the tomb, the deceased, and any potential intruders. The concept of tomb protection dates back to even before the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.), when exorcists were tasked with warding the tomb so that the deceased may rest in peace and bring no misfortune to the living. A primitive mingqi form appeared during the Western Han dynasty (206 B.C.–9 A.D.); these archaic sculptures were made of wood strips, straw, corn, mud, and were vaguely anthropomorphic with the addition of antlers. [27] Up to the Wei dynasty, zhenmushou were thought to be more animal-like in form. Post-Wei, when Buddhist and Daoist concepts permeated Chinese art, zhenmushou shifted to an “Earth spirit” appearance, combining the features of various animals (and in some instances, a human face) to form a hybrid figure. [28]

Figure 10. Human-faced Zhenmushou © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 117967_ProperLeft, Catalog No. 117967 Photographer Michelle Guo

It was not until the seventh century (Tang dynasty) that zhenmushou was determined to have a fully established iconography, complete with full armor. Artisans made zhenmushou using similar methods to other mingqi; the body was formed in a mold, with detailed features hand-sculpted. Sancai glaze was typically painted over the body prior to firing, and over the head afterwards. Of a zhenmushou pair, one typically had a feline face and the other, a human face. Although the features of tomb guardians can vary by artisan, common details throughout the eras on either of the zhenmushou pair have included dorsal spikes, lionlike bodies, horns, wings, and cloven hooves. [29] The human face was flexible in its style as well; it was not uncommon to see, “an ogre-like head featuring flaring ears, bulging eyes, and upturned nostrils.” [30]

Figure 11. Tianwang, Heavenly King © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118000_ATFront, Catalog No. 118000
Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

Figure 12. Zhenmuyong, Tomb Guardian Warrior © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118008_BTFront, Catalog No. 118008
Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

Figure 13. Yama, God of Death © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 117987Front, Catalog No. 117987
Photographer Michelle Guo

Tomb guardians could also take the form of warriors, called zhènmùyǒng「镇墓俑」and were similarly positioned in pairs near tomb entrances. Zhenmushou and Zhenmuyong have been ascribed a great importance in elite Chinese burials since circa Han dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D), evidenced by, “ their larger size and the fact that they are products of the most advanced ceramic technology available at the time.” [31] The original zhenmuyong were typically men with grimacing faces, donning armor with designs that accentuated their transcendental quality. [32]

Some time during the Sui dynasty (581-618), the Buddhist influence on Chinese art started shifting the image of the warrior towards a design that more closely resembled a tianwang「天王」, or Heavenly King. Although the figure still looked like a warrior, the two forms can often be distinguished by the latter’s crown and how it poses with one foot standing atop a demon-like creature. [33]

Berthold Laufer defined another offshoot of the original warrior image; he interpreted the flames and horns on some zhenmuyong statues as belonging to Yama, the Buddhist God of Death. These figures were similar to the Heavenly King figures in that both were posed with one foot rested on a defeated demon, although the latter often wore menacing faces. [34]

Tomb Guardians offer a glimpse into Chinese people's beliefs and superstitions regarding the afterlife.

[27] Fong, "Tomb-Guardian Figurines," 84-87.

[28] "Guarding against evil," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-4/case-405/g4-5_m2_b1/guarding-against-evil.

[29] Fong, "Tomb-Guardian Figurines," 85-86.

[30] Gallery Label. Arts of Asia: Gallery 105, Art Institute of Chicago. Visited August 4, 2022.

[31] Fong, "Tomb-Guardian Figurines," 84.

[32] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 73.

[33] Fong, "Tomb-Guardian Figurines," 100.

[34] Hentze, Chinese Tomb Figures, 73.

Tomb Models: Buildings, Furniture, and Tools

Tomb models were any inanimate object that could provide the deceased with stability and comfort in the afterlife. They ranged from miniature reproductions of whole buildings to furniture and tools. The Art Institute of Chicago noted that, “as burial practices filtered down from the Han aristocracy to officials and landowners, tomb models related to farming, an honored occupation, became increasingly popular.” [35] Some of the most common models were of granaries and stoves. Granary models could’ve been used to store actual grain, which at the time served dual purposes as both food and tax payments. [36] Pottery stove models were also buried for usage in the afterlife, further emphasized by the fact that, “on some of them [were] molded, in relief, utensils and articles of food, such as pokers, trays, mats, ladles, fish, and fowl.” [37] Some tomb models were made to pair with previously discussed mingqi, such as residential complexes for human figurines or a livestock pen for pigs.

Figure 14. Granary Urn Model © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, A3606_118429_BTFront, Catalog No. 118429
Photographer Gedi Jakovickas

Figure 15. Stove Model © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, CN0045_118194_ATTop, Catalog No. 118194
Photographer Natalie Carpiaux

Figure 15. Palanquin Model © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, CN0045_127156_ATSide4, Catalog No. 127156
Photographer Natalie Carpiaux

Mingqi models are another example of how mortuary objects can provide clues to the old material culture of China. Much of the architecture in the past were made using perishable materials and, thus, have long since disintegrated. Tomb models help to preserve history, giving researchers an idea of popular trends and notable details in buildings and furniture from various eras. Additionally, comparisons of tomb models can help define stylistic differences not only temporally but also regionally. [38] That being said, tomb models were not always completely accurate or realistic. Artisans sometimes added eccentric details such as animal feet instead of wooden posts, a feature that separated mingqi created for the spirit world from real objects used by the living. [39] Although tomb models often represented the more mundane aspects of ancient life, they are invaluable towards achieving a holistic understanding of Chinese history.

[35] "Granary (Cang)," Art Institute of Chicago, accessed August 22, 2022, https://www.artic.edu/artworks/12065/granary-cang.

[36] "Saving for famine or taxes," Field Museum of Natural History, accessed August 22, 2022, https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-207/g2-7_m1_b4/saving-for-famine-or-taxes.

[37] "Chinese Stoves for the Dead to Cook their Meals," Field Museum News, January, 1940, https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25715#page/3/mode/1up

[38] Heather Colburn Clydesdale, "The Vibrant Role of Mingqi in Early Chinese Burials," Met Museum: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, April, 2009, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mgqi/hd_mgqi.htm

[39] "Model of a Grain Storehouse," Art Institute of Chicago, accessed August 22, 2022, https://www.artic.edu/artworks/12013/model-of-a-grain-storehouse.

Bibliography

Art Institute of Chicago. "Granary (Cang)." Accessed August 22, 2022. https://www.artic.edu/artworks/12065/granary-cang.

Art Institute of Chicago. "Model of a Grain Storehouse." Accessed August 22, 2022. https://www.artic.edu/artworks/12013/model-of-a-grain-storehouse.

"Chinese Stoves for the Dead to Cook their Meals." Field Museum News, January, 1940. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25715#page/3/mode/1up

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Field Museum of Natural History. "An animal or an official?." Accessed August 22, 2022.
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https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-204/g2-4_m2_b2/as-lifelike-as-possible.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Foreign was fashionable." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-3/case-305/g3-5_m1_b3/foreign-was-fashionable.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Guarding against evil." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-4/case-405/g4-5_m2_b1/guarding-against-evil.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Here to serve your every need." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-206/g2-6_m1_b6/here-to-serve-your-every-need.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Mimes, musicians, and grooms." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-5/case-501/g5-1_m2_b5/mimes-musicians-and-grooms.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Molding a personality." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-206/g2-6_m1_b6/molding-a-personality.

Field Museum of Natural History. "Saving for famine or taxes." Accessed August 22, 2022.
https://chinahall.fieldmuseum.org/gallery-2/case-207/g2-7_m1_b4/saving-for-famine-or-taxes.

Fong, Mary H. "Tomb-Guardian Figurines: Their Evolution and Iconography." In Ancient Mortuary Traditions of China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary
Sculptures, edited by George Kuwayama, 84-105. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991.

Gallery Label. Arts of Asia: Gallery 105, Art Institute of Chicago. Visited August 4, 2022.

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Ho, Judy Chungwa. "The Twelve Calendrical Animals in Tang Tombs." In Ancient Mortuary Traditions of China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary Sculptures,
edited by George Kuwayama, 60-83. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991.

Hong, Jeehee. "Mechanism of Life for the Netherworld: Transformations of Mingqi in Middle-Period China ." Journal of Chinese Religions 43, no. 2, (November
2015): 161-193, https://doi.org/10.1179/0737769x15z.00000000023.

Watson, James L. "The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elementary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance." In Death Ritual in Late
Imperial and Modern China, edited by James L Watson and Evelyn S Rawski, 9. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

Zhou, Ligang. "Obscuring the Line between the Living and the Dead: Mortuary Activities inside the Grave Chambers of the Eastern Han Dynasty, China." Asian
Perspectives 54, no. 2 (2016): 238-252, https://doi.org/10.1353/asi.2016.0006.

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