Fans as East Asian Material Culture: selected examples from China and Japan in the Field Museum Anthropology Collections
Fans as East Asian Material Culture: selected examples from China and Japan in the Field Museum Anthropology Collections
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Written by Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen, 2022 Boone Scholar for East Asian Studies
This guide demonstrates a variety of East Asian fans in chronological order of styles. Most of the Chinese court fans were collected by Sinologist Berthold Laufer during the Captain Marshall Field expedition to China in 1923. Fans from Japan, on the other hand, are all gifts from private collectors to the Field Museum.
Origin of fans in East Asia
When the fan was first invented in China, it didn't serve as a cooling device from the heat, but as a visual representation of the emperor’s authority. In Gu Jin Ju (古今注, literally “Annotations on The Past and the Present”), Cui Bao (崔豹), a governor from the Western Jin Dynasty (265-316 A.D.) addressed the earliest known usage of fans by Emperor Shun (舜帝, approx. 2294 - 2184 B.C.). According to Cui, Emperor Shun ordered the production of the “Five-Ming Fan (五明扇)” to declare his call for outstanding talents to help fortify his regime. [1] There is no actual tangible evidence to verify this provenance, but the fact that ceramic and textile productions existed in Neolithic China suggests that Cui’s claim is historically possible.
[1]Du, Bing-Zhuang. Chinese Fans (中國扇). Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House, 1995, 3.
Barricade Fan
Barricade fan (障扇, "Zhàng Shàn") refers to the large fans usually used for imperial activities. The aforementioned “Five-Ming Fan” is a type of barricade fan, carried by the servants to indicate the emperor’s presence in court. During royal progress, barricade fans may also be used for blocking sunlight, wind, and dust.
Court Fan
Court fan (宮扇, “Gōng Shàn”) is a general category of fans used in the royal court. Compared to the barricade fans, court fans are made into much smaller sizes so the users can hold them with one hand. Court fans consist of a variety of styles and material combinations.
Feather Fan
Feather Fan
According to scholar and artist Wen Chen-Heng (1585-1645 A.D.), the feather fan (羽扇, “Yu Shàn”) is the earliest form of fan in Chinese history. [2] Feathers on the two sides of the fan must be symmetrical. Therefore, artisans usually acquire feathers on the same spot of two wings on one bird, making suitable source material more challenging to find. Zhejiang province, Jiangsu province, and Hubei province are some of the most renowned places for making feather fans. [3]
Besides using feather fans as scepters, Gaozhong emperor of the Shang Dynasty (殷高宗, r. 1274-1216 B.C.) introduced pheasant feather fans for chariot use. Some of the famous military strategists later on, such as Zhou Yu (周瑜,175-210 A.D.) and Zhuge Liang (諸葛亮, 181-234 A.D.) were also known to carry feather fans. Other purposes of feather fans include visual decorations and props for dance performances.
[2] Du, Chinese Fans, 13.
[3] Du, Chinese Fans, 17.
Figure 1. Eagle feather fan from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126018_Side2, Catalog No. 126018, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Round Fan
Round Fan
Round fan (團扇, “Tuan Shàn“) consists of a rod made of wood, bamboo, or ivory, and a round surface made of silk or paper. It gained popularity in Western Han Dynasty (202 B.C. - 9 A.D.), and became the mainstream form of court fans for centuries. As a result, tuan shàn is sometimes used as a synonym to gōng shàn (court fans), although not all court fans are circular. Tuan shàn was introduced to Japan around 670 A.D. as the uchiwa (団扇, literally “circular fan”). Unlike the singular framework that upholds the silhouette of the Chinese round fan, Japanese uchiwa has additional bindings laid in a radial manner to support the fan surface. [4]
The fans are usually decorated with paint or embroideries depicting flowers, plants, fruits, animals, landscapes, and sometimes human figures. By the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 A.D.), the artistry of embroidery in China had advanced enough to parallel the level of details and sophistication of paintings. Court fans thus gradually became a decorative art form of its own for artisans to display their techniques and aesthetics. Literati of the time also created calligraphy works and poems on fans as a form of intellectual expression and entertainment.
[4] Salwey, Charlotte Maria Birch. Fans of Japan. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1894, 28.
Figure 3. Tuan shàn with silk and gauze surface from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126032_front, Catalog No.126032, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 2. Uchiwa from Japan © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 257760_side1, Catalog No.257760, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Others
Others
Besides the most common circular shape, there are also a variety of silhouettes for court fans, such as hexagon, melon-shaped (瓜楞形), ellipse, and begonia-shaped (海棠形). Craftsmen also used weaved plant leaves to create fan surfaces.
Figure 4. Melon-shaped court fan with silk and gauze surface from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126030_front, Catalog No.126030, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 5. Palm leaves fan from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 246400_side2, Catalog No.246400, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 6. Begonia-shaped court fan with tapestry cloth surface from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 125928_FrontSolo, Catalog No.125928, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Folded Fan
Folded Fan
The evolution of folded fans in East Asia is a unique phenomenon. Although the earliest mentions of folded fans in Chinese records dates to the Southern Qi Dynasty (479-502 A.D.), craftsmanship of such designs didn’t become prevalent in China before the Northern Song Dynasty. [5] Unlike most of the cultural trends that spread from China to the rest of the region, the folded fan was thought to originate from Japan, and was brought westwards to the Korean peninsula before gaining popularity in China. [6]
The oldest surviving Ogi (おぎ, 扇, literally “folded fan” in Japanese; also known as sen-su) is dated to 747 A.D., made of wooden strips bonded together at one end with a metal rivet. [7] Specifically, the ones made of hinoki wood are called Hi-Ogi, an emblematic accessory of Japanese court fashion until the late 19th century. Ogi didn’t start out as a cooling device nor a decorative art form. Instead, it was used as a communication device among the upper class. Japanese court officials in the Nara period (710-794 A.D.) often used mokkan, a set of wooden tablets covered with inscriptions, for administrative, political, military, and commercial records. Some surviving examples of mokkan did have two holes at one end on each slip, which indicate that these slips may have been threaded together like an ogi at some point. [8] Therefore, some researchers believe that mokkans may have been the prototype for Hi-Ogi fans.
[5] Du, Chinese Fans, 31.
[6] Shou-Chien Shih (石守謙), “Landscape on Folding Fan: The Transmission of Japanese Folding Fan to China in the 10th Century and the Circulation of Landscape Fan Painting in 15th-17th Century China (山水隨身：十世紀日本摺扇的傳入中國與山水畫扇在十五至十七世紀的流行),” Taida Journal of Art History (國立臺灣大學美術史研究集刊), Issue 29 (September 2010): 2.
[7] Origin of the folding fan” Traditions Revised, SOAS University of London. Accessed July 13, 2022. https://www.soas.ac.uk/gallery/traditionsrevised/origin-of-the-folding-fan.html
[8] Julia Hutt and Hélène Alexander. Ogi: A History of the Japanese Fan (London: Dauphin Publishing Limited, 1992), 14-15.
Figure 7. Hi-Ogi from Japan © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 255442_Side1Solo, Catalog No.255442, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
In 988 A.D., a Japanese monk Chōnen provided a kind of “bat wing fan” (Kawahori-Ogi) as tribute to China. Different from the Hi-Ogi made primarily out of the same material, the Kawahori-Ogi consists of a paper surface pasted onto one side of a wooden or bamboo frame. During the 10th to 11th century, this kind of refined folded fan also circulated into the Chinese luxury market through diplomatic envoys from Korea, who paid tributes to the Chinese imperial court. [9] When China and Japan established official trade in 1404, the amount of exported Japanese fans, as diplomatic gestures and commercial goods, increased significantly in China. [10] Perhaps due to this reason, Chinese artisans started to recreate Japanese style fans, further enhancing this aesthetic that dominated the evolution of East Asian fans in the following generations. Chinese folding fans with double-sided paper surfaces, known as tōsen, were imported to Japan around the 14th century. [11] This form of “mutual interaction” is a relatively rare instance in the progression of the East Asian cultural landscape. Just like the round Chinese court fans, the folded fans also are commonly decorated with paintings. According to art historian Shih Shou-Chien, however, the folded fans and the ornamental motifs on them tend to signify a more personal representation of the fan’s user, potentially because of the folded fan’s compact size that enables the user to carry it everywhere. [12]
[9] Shih, “Landscape on Folding Fan,” 5.
[10] Yuu Hashimoto, “Re-examination of the Japan-Ming Trade,” The boundary/frontier perception of its inside and outside : the collection of academic articles for the 'Kyushu-Shigaku' 50th anniversary Vol. 2 (December 2008): 327-362.
[11] Masako Yamamoto and Yukie Naito, “Kyō-sensu – Folding Fans from Kyoto,” trans. Eddy Y. L. Chang. Ritsumeikan University & Kyoto Women’s University, Lifestyle Design Laboratory, Google Arts & Culture. Accessed July 30, 2022.
[12] Shih, “Landscape on Folding Fan,” 2.
Material and Stylistic Variations: Frames
Material and Stylistic Variations: Frames
Bamboo
Bamboo’s lightweight, elegant looking, and flexible quality makes it a common material for fan frames. A variety of bamboo species are endemic to East Asia. For example, the spotted bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides) and the mōsō bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) are popular among the fan makers.[13]
[13] Du, Chinese Fans, 31.
Wood
Wood is more commonly used for the production of court fans and large scale ceremonial fans. Out of various woods endemic to Japan, artisans usually use the hinoki (Chamacyparis obtusa, also known as Japanese Cypress) and the sugi ( Cryptomeria Japonica, a species of pine). [14] Sandalwood (Santalum album) is also another popular material for wooden fans. It is grown in India, Australia, and some parts of Africa. In East Asia, it can also be found in Taiwan. Both hinoki and sandalwood are known for the relaxing fragrance that also serves as a natural repellent against pests. [15] Some artisans thus created entirely wooden designs that are not only elaborately ornamental, but also maximize the unique scent of the material.
[14] Salwey, Fans of Japan, 37.
[15] Du, Chinese Fans, 51.
Ivory
As one of the most highly demanded precious materials, ivory plays a crucial role in East Asian traditional art and craft. Chinese ivory carving practices can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty, and potentially prehistoric times, judging from the level of sophistication presented by surviving examples. Elephants were endemic to the northern region of ancient China, and African ivory was imported to China around the Song Dynasty. [16] On the other hand, there isn’t any native elephant population in Japan. Artisans rely on extensive imports from other Asian countries, especially India. [17] Deer horns are occasionally used as substitutes, but they are still rarely comparable to the specific material quality of ivory. Intricate carving style is the signature feature of ivory fans. Artisans often incorporate multiple techniques, such as relief carving, hollow engraving, and inlaying, to create sophisticated details on the fan. In the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.), ivory carving was mainly divided into the Beijing-based Northern School and the Guangzhou-based Southern School. The Northern School tended to display ivory’s natural materiality by employing polished finishes. Meanwhile, the Southern School was known for its elaborate and exquisite carvings, such as relief works, linked chains, multilayered concentric spheres, and floss weavings. [18] Particularly, the ivory floss plait is exclusively a Southern School creation, as shown on an octagon patterned court fan from the Field Museum’s collection (figure 14). This fan has a woven ivory surface and a tortoiseshell frame, ornamented with colored ivory carvings of auspicious floral motifs and a butterfly. The handle, made of ivory-hue enamel, also displayed intricate engravings, with an inlay of brass and blue kingfisher feathers installed on the stave. [19]
During the 1920s and 30s, Chinese fan makers mass produced sandalwood fans using the same set of techniques for ivory carving fans, and even created hybrid designs featuring both materials on a single fan. [20] Therefore, many sandalwood fans and ivory fans may resemble each other, despite the material differences.
[16] Editors of Encyclopedia, "East Asian Carving," Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified Oct 29, 2010. https://www.britannica.com/art/ivory-carving/East-Asian-carving
[17] Salwey, Fans of Japan, 36.
[18] Thomas DeLeo, “18th C. Guangdong Province Woven Ivory Tribute to the Qing Emperors From Private and Museum Collections as Memorialized in the ‘Palace Presentation Lists,’” unpublished manuscript, May 2015, typescript, 5.
[19] DeLeo, “18th C. Guangdong Province Woven Ivory Tribute,” 30.
[20] Du, Chinese Fans, 63-69.
Figure 12. Ivory fan © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 182601_side1, Catalog No.182601, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 13. Ivory fan from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126102_Side1Solo, Catalog No.126102, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 14. Plaited Ivory Floss Fan from China (detail) © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 125927_Detail1, Catalog No.125927, Photographer Jamie Kelly
Tortoiseshell
Sourced from the shell of the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), tortoiseshell is a semi-translucent, marble-patterned material usually with a black or dark brown base and touches of amber, gold, cream, and orange. The hawksbill sea turtle had a wide distribution across the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans, and tortoiseshell was traded in many parts of Europe and Asia as a highly valued ornamental material. Due to its pliable nature under heat and pressure, artisans utilized it in producing various types of personal items, such as jewelry containers, fashion accessories, and snuff boxes. The trade and poaching of tortoiseshell, however, seriously endangered the existing hawksbill turtle population. As a result, sourcing and trading of tortoiseshell has been prohibited worldwide since 1977. [21]
[21] Editors of Encyclopedia, "tortoiseshell," Encyclopedia Britannica, July 20, 1998. https://www.britannica.com/art/tortoiseshell-ornament
Figure 15. Tortoiseshell fan from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126106_Side2, Catalog No.126106, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Metal
Metal is commonly employed for creating smaller components and decorations on a fan. For example, the pivot of a folding fan is usually made of brass or iron. Craft masters also use bronze, silver, and gold for embellishments and inlay. [22] In feudal Japan, the samurai class sometimes carried a kind of war fan called tessen (鉄扇, literally “iron fan”) as a self defense tool in situations where weapons were not allowed. The tessen consists of heavy, solid iron plates resembling the shape of a closed ogi. This seemingly harmless device is, in fact, capable of warding off arrows and swords, and has even been used as a throwing weapon. [23]
[22] Salwey, Fans of Japan, 41.
[23] Oscar Ratti, Adele Westbrook, Secrets of the Samurai: A Survey of the Martial Arts of Feudal Japan (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2021), 296-304.
Figure 16. Iron war fan from Japan © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 132455_side, Catalog No.132455, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Material and Stylistic Variations: Surface
Material and Stylistic Variations: Surface
Silk
Silk, sourced from the cocoon made by silkworms (Bombyx mori), has been a widely used, luxurious material since ancient times. As one of the biggest and earliest producers of silk in history, Chinese people reportedly had been systematically developing sericulture as early as the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.). [24] The renowned trade route, the Silk Road, is an epitome of the widespread reputation of refined Chinese silk. After silk production techniques reached Japan, the industry expanded throughout the main Island of Japan, enabling the production of kinusen (絹扇, literally “silk folding fan”).
The manufacturing of dyed, printed, and painted silk was already well developed around the Tang Dynasty China (618-907 A.D.). However, fan makers usually employed neutral-colored and plain silk when making their crafts. The most high quality silk is free from any cotton or other fiber mixture, and the material for making court fans are generally of this kind. The wrapping cloth for fan cases and coverlets are also made from pure silk. [25]
[24] Mark Cartwright, “Silk in Antiquity: Definition.” World History Encyclopedia. July 28, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/
[25] Salwey, Fans of Japan, 39-40.
Paper
Paper
Chinese fans usually feature Xuan paper as the main surface, durable bast paper as backing, and the smooth Lian-shi bamboo paper covering the pivot. It is made from the resistant, pliable fiber of the blue sandalwood tree (Pteroceltis tatarinowii) mixed with rice straws. [26] Known for its durability and excellent compatibility with water and ink, Xuan paper has been, and still is, the primary kind of material for Chinese painting and calligraphy since the Tang Dynasty. After paper manufacturing techniques were introduced from China to Japan around 610 A.D., paper soon became a favored material among Japanese fan makers to create uchiwa and the kamisen (紙扇, literally “paper folding fan”). Bast paper, made with dicotyledonous plant fiber paste, is the most common type of paper used for kamisen. The Mino Gami with Kozo (mulberry bark) fiber, Mitsumata (Edgeworthia chrysantha), and Gampi (of the Wikstroemia genus) are the most popular options. [27] These papers are durable, soft, light, subtly lustrous, and easy to paint and print on, which not only enhances portability of the fans but also enables a wider artistic versatility for artists and calligraphers.
[26] “Traditional Handicrafts of Making Xuan Paper,” Silk Roads Programme, UNESCO, accessed August 8, 2022. https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/intangible-cultural-heritage/traditional-handicrafts-making-xuan-paper
[27] Salwey, Fans of Japan, 38.
Material and Stylistic Variations: Decorations
Material and Stylistic Variations: Decorations
Lacquer, Mother-of-Pearl, Gold, and Silver
Among a grand variety of decoration techniques, the art of lacquering is one of the most extensively employed. Lacquer is a resin made from the sap of the Chinese lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) endemic to East Asia. Lacquer can provide resistance against water, acid, and heat (to a certain level) to the material it is applied on (mostly wood). However, due to its volatile nature, it can only be combined with certain kinds of coloring substances such as charcoal and cinnabar. For this reason, black and red are the two dominant colors for traditional lacquerware. Lacquer sap is extremely toxic, and a high-end lacquerware generally requires over 30 times of coating and drying. Therefore, only specialized artisans are capable of working through this time-consuming, costly, and technically demanding process, further enhancing the artistic and commercial value of lacquerware.
The earliest records of lacquer covered pieces were dated to Neolithic China, but anything with more than plain surface coatings wasn't made until the Warring States period (475–221 B.C.). Artisans incorporated other ornamental materials, such as mother-of-pearl, gold, and silver into creating sophisticated embellishments. Several predominantly Chinese techniques, such as engraving gold, relief carving, and inlaying lacquer with mother-of-pearl were developed before and during the Song Dynasty. [28]
While Japan’s lacquer craftsmanship is highly influenced by Tang Dynasty China, Japanese lacquerware mostly focuses on surface decorations, and later on evolved into a unique practice of its own. For example, the earliest known lacquerware decoration in Japan is inlaid foil of gold and silver from the Nara period (538 - 794 A.D.). In the following Heian period (794 - 1185 A.D.), a similar method called maki-e (蒔絵, literally “sprinkling picture”) became prominent. Craft masters create elaborate motifs by sprinkling gold, silver, and tin powder on undried lacquer, then polish the surface to gain a slick finish. [29] In terms of fan making, these techniques are primarily applied on the ribs and the handle of a fan, which not only contribute to high aesthetic and commercial value, but also physical durability of these fascinating works of art.
[28] “Lacquerware of East Asia,” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. October, 2004.http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/elac/hd_elac.htm
[29] Editors of Encyclopedia, "maki-e," Encyclopedia Britannica, June 27, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/art/maki-e.
Figure 19. Lacquer uchiwa from Japan © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 180259_Side2Solo, Catalog No.180259, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 20. Lacquer fan from China © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126110_Side1Solo, Catalog No.126110, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Figure 21. Lacquer fan with mother-of-pearl inlay from China (details) © The Field Museum - CC BY-NC, 126070_side1, Catalog No.126070, Photographer Wen-Yueh Winnie Chen
Bibliography
Bibliography
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia. "East Asian Carving." Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified Oct 29, 2010.
https://www.britannica.com/art/ivory-carving/East-Asian-carving
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia. "maki-e." Encyclopedia Britannica, June 27, 2017.
https://www.britannica.com/art/maki-e.
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia. "tortoiseshell." Encyclopedia Britannica, July 20, 1998.
https://www.britannica.com/art/tortoiseshell-ornament.
DeLeo, Thomas. “18th C. Guangdong Province Woven Ivory Tribute to the Qing Emperors From Private and Museum
Collections as Memorialized in the ‘Palace Presentation Lists’” Unpublished manuscript, May 2015, typescript.
Department of Asian Art. “Lacquerware of East Asia.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. October, 2004.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/elac/hd_elac.htm
Du, Bing-Zhuang. Chinese Fans (中國扇). Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House, 1995.
Hashimoto, Yuu. “Re-examination of the Japan-Ming Trade.” The boundary/frontier perception of its inside and outside : the collection of academic articles for
the 'Kyushu-Shigaku' 50th anniversary Vol. 2 (December 2008): 327-362.
Hutt, Julia and Hélène Alexander. Ogi: A History of the Japanese Fan. London: Dauphin Publishing Limited, 1992.
“Origin of the folding fan” Traditions Revised, SOAS University of London. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://www.soas.ac.uk/gallery/traditionsrevised/origin-of-the-folding-fan.html
Ratti, Oscar and Adele Westbrook. Secrets of the Samurai: A Survey of the Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2021.
Salwey, Charlotte Maria Birch. Fans of Japan. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1894.
Shih, Shou-Chien (石守謙). “Landscape on Folding Fan: The Transmission of Japanese Folding Fan to China in the 10th Century and the Circulation of Landscape
Fan Painting in 15th-17th Century China (山水隨身：十世紀日本摺扇的傳入中國與山水畫扇在十五至十七世紀的流行),” Taida Journal of Art History (國立臺
灣大學美術史研究集刊).” Issue 29 (September 2010): 1-66, 269.
UNESCO. “Traditional Handicrafts of Making Xuan Paper.” Silk Roads Programme. Accessed August 8, 2022.
https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/intangible-cultural-heritage/traditional-handicrafts-making-xuan-paper
Yamamoto, Masako and Yukie Naito. “Kyō-sensu – Folding Fans from Kyoto.” Translated by Eddy Y. L. Chang. Ritsumeikan University & Kyoto Women’s
University, Lifestyle Design Laboratory. Google Arts & Culture. Accessed July 30, 2022.
https://artsandculture.google.com/story/ky%C5%8D-sensu-%E2%80%94-folding-fans-from-kyoto-kyoto-women-s-university/igXRBsv1UYOrIA?hl=en
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