Security

The land of Palestine has been the epicentre of political, religious and racial dissension for the good part of a century. Palestine was the cultural hotbed for many peoples especially those of the three Abrahamic religions. Settlements between the two parties have come close but proved ineffectual or have not been implemented due to a variety of reasons, including assassinations. The current situation is dire and a solution is vital.

Definition of Key Terms

Right of Return - principle that Palestinian refugees both first-generation refugees and their descendants have right to the property they themselves or their forebears left behind or were forced to leave in what is now Israel and the Palestinian Territories
PLO - Palestinian Liberation Organisation
Nakba - known as the Palestinian Catastrophe, this was the 1948 permanent displacement of a majority of the Palestinian Arabs.
Gaza Strip - 140 sq miles of land located in the southwest corner of Israel, along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea
West Bank - it is landlocked by Jordan and the Dead Sea to the east and by Israel to the south, west, and north forming the main bulk of the Palestinian territories.
IDF - Israeli Defence Force
Intifada - sustained series of protests and violent riots carried out by Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel

Background Information

Following the Allied victory in the First World War and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the region of Palestine fell under British rule. It was governed under what was called the ‘British Mandate for Palestine’.

During the time of both the Ottoman and British rule of Palestine, it was a very diverse population of people who followed the three Abrahamic Faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The land of Palestine holds important religious significance in all three faiths as it is home to the Holy Land. For Jews, the cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed, and Tiberias are historic locations. For example in the 10th century BC, King David chose Jerusalem to be the site of the Holy Temple and Hebron is believed to be the burial place of Abraham and his family. For Christians, it is the birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem, his life in Galilee, and his crucifixion in Jerusalem. For Muslims, Jerusalem is the third holiest site and was named the “Holy Land” by Allah. The Al-Aqsa mosque holds great significance as the Prophet Mohammad, peace be upon him, according to the Quran, was taken by the angel Gabriel from Mecca to Al-Aqsa before ascending to heaven.

In the late 19th Century, the Zionist movement gained momentum amongst some people in the Jewish community, primarily in central and eastern Europe, who wanted to establish a homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine. There was a migration of some early Zionists to Palestine at this time and political lobbying began to promote their goals. In 1917, the Balfour Declaration was signed by Lord Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, to Lord Rothschild, the leader of the British Jewish community, where he stated “the British government support for a national home for Jewish people within the State of Palestine”. A key sentence in the Declaration, and one which is often overlooked, is where Arthur Balfour states “…it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done that may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine…”

During the time of the British Mandate between the end of the First World War and the end of the Second World War, tensions between the native Palestinian-Arab community and Jewish immigrants from Europe boiled over into aggressive and violent clashes. There were active politically motivated militant acts of violence towards both the Arab community and British civil law enforcement as a means to further the Zionist cause. The British increasingly struggled to maintain peace and maintaining the Mandate became burdensome.

Following the events of the Second World War, the mass displacement of European Jews and the extermination of millions of Jews in the Holocaust, the political scene was set to fulfil the promise of the British Government to establish a Jewish state in the land of Palestine. The British took the problem to the United Nations in 1947 where it was proposed that Mandate Palestine be partitioned into two independent states; one Palestinian-Arab, and one Jewish with Jerusalem being internationalised. The discussions over this proposal proved to be problematic. The Arab community viewed the proposal as pro-Zionist and boycotted talks over the plan. The partition plan was to give 62% of the land to the Jewish state even though the Arab population was twice as large. The Jewish community and Zionist movement accepted the plan but it was rejected by the Arabs. At this point, civil war broke out between the communities and the plans were not implemented. The UN continued to try to find a resolution but agreements among members were hard to achieve. Much lobbying by the Zionists eventually led to the partition known as the ‘UN General Assembly of the Partition Plan for Palestine, Resolution 181 (II)’. Subsequently, on the 14th of May 1948, the State of Israel was declared.

UNSCOP partition plan, 1947

Palestine post-Partition

A bloody war commenced between Arabs and Israelis following the Declaration of the State of Israel and the withdrawal of British governance. The newly formed State inflicted heavy losses on the Palestinian population and took 78% of Palestinian land, forced the expulsion of 700,000 Palestinians, and committed many acts of war crimes. This event is known as ‘The Nakba’ which in Arabic means ‘the Catastrophe’ and is described by many historians as ethnic cleansing.

Following the 1948 Palestine War, much more land was taken by Israel and the expelled population have no right of return to their homeland to this very day. A large Palestinian diaspora resides in many parts of the world with many living in refugee camps within Gaza and the West Bank as well as the neighbouring countries such as Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.

In 1967, a coalition of Arab countries (led by Egypt, Syria, and Jordan) launched what was later termed the Six-Day War to reclaim land for the Palestinians. However, this turned into a military disaster for the Arabs and the result was further territorial annexation by Israel furthering their territory into the Palestinian territories of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem; Egyptian Sinai Peninsula; and Syrian Golan Heights. A further war in 1973, known as the Yom Kippur war, was initiated by Arab Countries in an attempt to reclaim these territories which did not succeed. To this day these captured lands remain under the influence of Israel with the exception of the Sinai Peninsula which was returned to Egypt following a peace agreement between the two countries in the early 1980s.

Relevant UN Treaties, Resolutions and Reports

Significant UN Resolutions:

181 (II) (1947) - UN General Assembly of the Partition Plan for Palestine (Accepted by Jews, rejected by Arabs)
194 (1948) - Addresses Right of Return for Palestinian Refugees
242 (1967) - Israeli forces withdraw from territory occupied following the Six-Day War
338 (1973) - Call for ceasefire during Yom Kippur War and urged implementation of 242
1397 (2002) - during the Second Intifada, called for ceasefire and “Roadmap for Peace”
1860 (2009) - Calling for ceasefire in Gaza War and calling for humanitarian aid and opening border crossings
2334 (2016) - reaffirming the illegality of Israeli settlements, cessation of building further settlements and implementation of Two-State Solution on pre-1967 borders

Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue

Oslo Accords

The most notable attempt to negotiate a peaceful settlement was in the early 1990s with a pair of agreements (Oslo I Accord 1993 and Oslo II Accord 1995) between the Israeli Government and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO). This was based on both parties recognising the legitimacy of the other’s existence. This “peace process” included dialogue between the two parties discussing borders between Israel and any future Palestinian State, negotiations about Israeli Settlements, the status of Jerusalem, security, and the Right of Return for Palestinians.

This was an incredibly difficult and protracted process but there was great hope at the time that this would bring about a lasting settlement despite opposition from factions within both communities.

The process ultimately broke down as no lasting agreements could be concluded. Principally, Israeli settlements continued to be built, there was continuing violence between both parties, there was a lack of trust, and the economic disparity between Israelis and Palestinians led to its failure. In 1995, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a Jewish nationalist opposed to the peace process. This indirectly contributed to its demise as it broke the political relationship between Rabin and Yasser Arafat.

A lasting legacy from the Oslo process was a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan and the creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) which has a varying degree of administration over the West Bank.

Possible Solutions

A two state solution has always been the primary solution since the creation of Israel and continues to be supported mostly by politically invested parties.

However many are starting to believe that a more correct, feasible and fair solution is a one-state solution.

The current map of Israel / Palestine has been disputed since the 1967 war with much violence and bloodshed. No meaningful progress has been made in over 55 years and sticking to a failed plan wouldn’t suggest there is much chance of success in the future.

Since 1948 a version of a two state solution has been attempted. However, this has never succeeded. Any land that may be run by Palestinians is ultimately dictated by the Israeli Government and Palestinians live with unequal rights compared to their Israeli counterparts. This is often described as apartheid and is one of the leading reasons why peace has been so elusive. Similarly to South Africa under the apartheid regime indigenous people are arguably treated as second class citizens with few rights.

A route to a one-state solution would see all citizens living within the borders of the state of Palestine (according to pre-1948) enjoining equal status and rights, freedom of movement to live, work and travel and to legally own property anywhere within these borders. The Palestinian diaspora would have a right to return to their home land and similarly to the peace and reconciliation process seen in South Africa following the end of apartheid and open and truthful dialogue would exist between both Israelis and Palestinians.

Historic Palestine was a peaceful and safe country for all people of all faiths and this history should be embraced again for a peaceful and prosperous future. Israelis may wish to call their land Israel and Arabs may wish to call their land Palestine and this could well be a possibility in a reconciled land.

Bibliography

A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East, James Barr. ISBN 1847394574

Palestine Solidarity Campaign (PSC) www.palestinecampaign.org

UN The Question of Palestine (www.un.org/unispal/history)

Jewish Voice for Peace (www.jewishvoiceforpeace.org)

What responsibility do we have to recycle space waste?

Introduction

In an era when space exploration holds such significance and captures the interests of countless people, the sustainability of our activities, within and beyond Earth’s boundaries, has emerged as a pressing concern for all. The rapid expansion of space activities, whether for scientific discovery, space mining or satellite deployment, has led to a burgeoning accumulation of space debris, or “space waste”, in Earth’s orbit. The question of our responsibility towards space waste is not just academic curiosity; it is a matter of global significance that warrants careful consideration.

The aim of this research report and debate is to provide a comprehensive exploration surrounding the responsibilities towards space waste; touching on its origins and its ethical, legal and practical considerations that underpin our roles in managing this growing challenge.

Definition of Key Terms

Space Waste (Debris) - Refers to defunct human-made objects in the Earth’s orbit. Including unused satellites, spent rocket stages, fragments from previous collisions and other discarded items.
Upcycling - In terms of space waste, refers to practice of converting space debris into new and valuable assets.
Orbital Salvage - Similar to “upcycling”, the process of recovering and refurbishing defunct satellites, or other space objects, in orbit to bring them back into service.
Kessler Syndrome - A scenario in which the density of space debris in low Earth orbit becomes so high that collisions between objects create a cascading effect; thus generating more debris and making space activities increasingly hazardous.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) - The region of space around Earth at altitudes roughly between 160 km and 2,000 km; a common location for satellites and the International Space Station.
Geostationary Orbit (GEO) - A circular orbit approximately 35,786 km above the Earth’s equator. Satellites in GEO remain fixed relative to Earth’s surface, making them ideal for communication and weather observation.
Space Situational Awareness (SSA) - The monitoring and tracking of objects in Earth’s orbit to predict their trajectories and potential collisions.

Background Information

Space waste is a growing and complex issue that has garnered international attention in recent years. It refers to the collection of defunct human-made objects, ranging from non-functional satellites and spent rocket stages to fragments generated by collisions or explosions, that currently orbit the Earth. Space debris poses significant challenges to the safety and sustainability of space activities and it is a pressing concern for the international community.

Historical Context: The accumulation of space debris traces its origins back to the dawn of the Space Age in the mid-20th century. As nations launched satellites and conducted space missions, they inadvertently left behind objects that remained in Earth’s orbit. Over time, this debris has continued to increase, driven by several factors:

Proliferation of Space Activities: The growth of space exploration, satellite technology and commercial space ventures has led to an ever-increasing number of objects being placed into Earth’s orbit.
Lack of Deorbiting Protocols: Many early satellites and rocket stages were not designed with built-in mechanisms for safe deorbiting at the end of their operational life. Consequently, these objects remain in orbit as space debris.
Fragmentation Events: Occasionally, collisions between space debris or anti-satellite (ASAT) tests by certain countries have resulted in the creation of smaller fragments, further exacerbating the space debris problem.

Environmental Impact: Space debris travels at extremely high velocities, posing a substantial risk to operational spacecraft, including satellites, the International Space Station and crewed missions. Even small fragments can cause catastrophic damage upon impact. The increasing population of space debris can jeopardise the long-term sustainability of space activities. It can limit available orbital slots, increasing the complexity of space missions and thus raising the cost of space operations.

Kessler Syndrome Concerns: The Kessler Syndrome, a theoretical concept proposed by Donald J. Kessler in 1978, warns of a potential chain reaction of collisions in space, leading to an exponential increase in debris and making some orbits hazardous or unusable.

Various space agencies and organisations, such as the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), have developed guidelines and best practices for space debris mitigation and responsible space operations. One of these measures for example states that, “Any program, project or experiment that will release objects in orbit should not be planned unless an adequate assessment can verify the effect on the orbital environment, and the hazard to other operating space craft and orbital stages is acceptably low in the long-term.”

Relevant UN Treaties, Resolutions and Reports

United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space - Collation of all relevant treaties and principles.

Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue

Various active debris removal (ADR) missions have been proposed and even conducted to remove defunct satellites and large pieces of space debris from orbit. An example is RemoveDEBRIS which was a satellite research project intending to demonstrate various space debris removal technologies. The RemoveDEBRIS satellite captured the debris in a net and then manoeuvred itself to fall into Earth’s atmosphere and burn up. This mission was the first successful in-orbit demonstration of a series of technologies for ADR.

Possible Solutions

The European Space Agency’s ClearSpace program started in 2020 and is planned for launch in 2026. This project focuses on developing and demonstrating technologies for ADR in Earth’s orbit; their first goal will be to capture the Vega Secondary Payload Adapter (Vespa), which was part of a launch in 2013.