The Sino-Indian War 

Summary

The Sino-Indian war was a conflict between China and India in 1962, centred around the ownership of the regions of Aksai Chin and the North-East Frontier Agency (present day Arunachal Pradesh), which lay on the borders of the two states. Initiated by the attack of the People's Liberation Army, the war started on the 20th of October 1962  and ended on the 21st November the same year. This dispute resulted in China taking over the vast majority of these regions, as well as consolidating its control of Tibet.  In the early 20th Century,  Britain had drafted the borders of the two countries under diktat, calling the border the ‘Mcmahon Line’. The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in border disputes, angering China, who then annexed Tibet in 1950. Tibet was tired of its decade of repression, so the public rose up in protest against the PLA. Initiated by the attack of the People's Liberation Army, the war started on the 12th of October and ended about a month later.

Definition of Key Terms

1. Sino: Chinese, something relating to China 

2. Aksai Chin: Aksai Chin is a region located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, in the western Himalayas.

3. North-East Frontier Agency: a political division in British India.

4. People's Liberation Army: the People's Liberation Army (PLA)  is the principal military force of the People's Republic of China and the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party. The group was established in 1927, predating the formation of the PRC (People's Republic of China) and they attacked the disputed regions on October 12th, 1962. 

5. Mcmahon Line: the boundary between Tibet and British India.

6. Partition of India: the changing of political borders in 1947, two years after WWII. This partition was a significant event in the history of the Indian subcontinent and marked the end of British colonial rule in India, leading to the creation of two sovereign states- Indian and Pakistan.

7. (Liberation of/Uprising of) Tibet: according to the Chinese government, Tibet was liberated when Chinese forces entered the region in 1950 and subsequently signed a Seventeen Point Agreement with the Tibetan local government in 1951. This agreement allowed for Chinese sovereignty over Tibet while granting certain cultural and religious autonomy to the Tibetan people.

8. Tawang: Tawang is a town located in the northeastern state of Arunachal Pradesh in India. The region has been a subject of territorial disputes between India and China, with both countries claiming the area as part of their territories.

9. Jawaharal Nehru: an Indian nationalist leader, politician, and statesman who played a key role in the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule. He was prime minister of India in 1962.

10. Forward policy: a strategy adopted by the Indian government in the early 1960s, specifically during the tenure of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, regarding India's border disputes with China. The policy aimed at establishing Indian outposts in disputed areas, especially along the border regions of Aksai Chin and North East Frontier Agency (NEFA), in order to strengthen India's territorial claims and prevent further Chinese encroachments.

Reasons for Conflict 

• The disagreement over the alignment of the border between India and China -  The border in the Himalayan region was never properly demarcated during the British colonial period, leading to different interpretations of where the actual border lay.

• Aksai Chin - an area located in the western Himalayas, was of strategic importance to both India and China. The region served as a vital road link for China, connecting its western regions to Tibet. India's construction of roads and military outposts in the area was viewed with suspicion by the Chinese government, as they considered it a threat to their strategic interests.

• Political factors -  including the broader context of the Cold War. China, under Mao Zedong's leadership, wanted to assert its dominance in Asia and demonstrate its military strength. Additionally, there were ideological differences between India, which practised democracy, and China, which was under communist rule.

Countries Involved (Other than China and India) 

• Britain: Britain did not have a direct military involvement in the Sino-Indian War of 1962. By that time, India was already an independent nation, having gained independence from British colonial rule in 1947. Britain's main involvement was the drafting of the borders in the colonial period, although this was meant to be peaceful and not result in war. It's important to note that Britain's involvement was diplomatic and aimed at promoting peace rather than military intervention.

• USSR: the Soviet Union had close relations with India, having provided economic and military assistance to India after its independence in 1947. During the Sino-Indian conflict, the Soviet Union supported India diplomatically and morally, expressing solidarity with India and offering political backing against Chinese aggression.

• US: the United States was indirectly involved in the Sino-Indian War of 1962 through diplomatic and material support for India. During the conflict, the U.S. expressed sympathy for India and provided some material assistance, including military equipment and economic aid. However, this support was limited and was not aimed at direct military intervention in the conflict.

• Pakistan: during the war, Pakistan was in a state of tension with India due to their ongoing territorial disputes, particularly over the region of Kashmir. Pakistan was, and continues to be, an ally of China, and the Sino-Indian War reinforced the Sino-Pakistani friendship. 

Timeline of Events

• 1947: India gains independence from British rule. The newly independent India inherits the border issues left unresolved by the British colonial administration, including the border with Tibet, which was later controlled by China.

• 1950: China annexes Tibet, raising concerns in India about its northern border security.

• 1951: China and Tibet sign the Seventeen Point Agreement, which establishes Chinese sovereignty over Tibet.

• 1954: India and China sign the Panchsheel Agreement, which outlines principles of peaceful coexistence. However, border disagreements persist.

• 1959: Tensions escalate after the Dalai Lama, Tibet's spiritual leader, flees to India following an unsuccessful uprising against Chinese rule in Tibet.

• 1960: Sino-Indian talks to resolve border issues break down, and both sides reinforce their military presence along the disputed border areas.

• 1961: Skirmishes occur between Indian and Chinese troops in the border region.

• 1962: In the months leading up to the war, there are increased Chinese military movements along the border. India launches the "Forward Policy," establishing outposts in disputed areas to assert its claims. Skirmishes between Indian and Chinese troops escalate.

• October 20, 1962: China launches simultaneous offensives in the western sector in Aksai Chin and the eastern sector in NEFA, marking the beginning of the Sino-Indian War.

• November 19, 1962: China declares a unilateral ceasefire, signalling an end to active combat operations.

• November 21, 1962: India announces a unilateral ceasefire, officially ending the war.

References

BBC. 2014. “India urged to declassify report on the 1962 war with China.” BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-26641668.

Free TIbet. n.d. “Tibetan Uprising 1959 - Tibetan Resistance.” Free Tibet. Accessed October 9, 2023. https://freetibet.org/freedom-for-tibet/tibetan-resistance/tibetan-uprising-1959/.

Tellis, Ashley J. 2020. “Hustling in the Himalayas: The Sino-Indian Border Confrontation.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/06/04/hustling-in-himalayas-sino-indian-border-confrontation-pub-81979.

Tharoor, Ishaan. 2012. “The Sino-Indian War: 50 Years Later, Will India and China Clash Again? | TIME.com.” World. https://world.time.com/2012/10/21/the-sino-indian-war-50-years-later-will-india-and-china-clash-again/.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

Summary

In  October 1962 the USSR, under the leadership of Nikita Krushchev, began to store missiles on the island of Cuba, 90 miles away from the USA. After the leftist uprising in 1959, Cuba fell to communism with Fidel Castro in charge. This new political agenda led them to ally with the USSR and enabled the transport and storage of nuclear missiles in the country, justified as a deterrent against a US invasion. The Crisis lasted 13 days from the 14th-28th of October instigating negotiations between Nikita Khrushchev and President John F. Kennedy which resulted in the removal of Soviet nuclear weapons from Cuba and the removal of American nuclear weapons from Turkey. The information about the missiles in Turkey only came to light after their removal, as it was a discreet operation and Kennedy was wary of the public’s reaction to negotiations with Communists. 

Definitions of Key Terms:

• Soviet: having relation or belonging to the USSR. 

• Cuba: a country located on an island 90 miles from Florida 

• Leftist: communist or similar ideals with varying extremity 

The 13 Days  

• 14th October

  • American U2 spy plane captures photos of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba.

• 16th October 

  • President Kennedy is informed of the weapons’ existence and meets with Ex-comm (committee of trusted advisors and personnel) to discuss further action.

• 17th October 

  • The US military is moved to the southeast of the country to prepare in the case of war.

• 18th October 

  • Kennedy meets with Soviet foreign minister, Andrei Gromyko, and is assured the missiles are defensive rather than offensive. 

• 19th October

  • Further government meetings to discuss response. 

• 20th October 

  • Kennedy approves  a naval blockade of Cuba as advised by Ex-Comm. 

• 21st October

  • Kennedy meets with his general of tactical air command and is told that an air strike would not guarantee 100% destruction of the missiles. 

• 22nd October

  • The naval blockade is publicly announced as Kennedy calls on Krushchev to remove his ships. 

• 23rd October 

  • Khrushchev sends a letter to JFK stating that the blockade is an intimidation tactic and that his ships will break through the blockade. 

• 24th October

  • Kennedy appeals to Khrushchev again to turn his ships around. 

  • Khrushchev announces that the USSR is prepared to launch missiles if the USA decides to go to war. 

• 25th October 

  • Both Soviet and American armed forces are on the highest alert.

  • Kennedy writes to Khrushchev asking him to remove his missiles from Cuba. 

• 26th October 

  • The Soviets continue construction of the missile sites. 

  • Kennedy considers going to war.

  • Soviets offer to dismantle the missiles if the USA guarantees not to invade Cuba.

• 27th October 

  • Khrushchev contacts Kennedy, promising to dismantle their weapons if the USA extracts their weapons in Turkey. 

  • An American pilot is shot down over Cuba. 

  • Kennedy replies to Khrushchev’s letters, promising not to invade Cuba in exchange for the removal of the Soviet missiles

  • Kennedy also promises to remove the Turkish missiles at a later date. 

• 28th October 

  • Both sides agree to the terms stated above.

  • The removal of the missiles in Turkey is kept secret until 1989.

Consequences 

The Cuban Missile Crisis is considered one of the highest points of tension during the whole Cold War. The confrontation resulted in the introduction of a “hotline” telephone line, connecting the White House directly to the Kremlin for future similar emergencies. Although Cuba remained communist and highly armed, the missiles were removed under UN supervision. It also led to Khrushchev’s loss of power as he had apparently failed to secure nuclear parity with the USA according to the members of the Nomenklatura elite, leading to his removal from power in 1964. Conversely, Kennedy’s image was strengthened, both domestically and internationally, as he was seen to have prevented the outbreak of nuclear war. The event interestingly decreased tensions between the East and West. It can also be said that the period of detente which ensued was due to the negotiation by both leaders and willingness to compromise and come to an agreement. 

The Algerian Independence War 

Summary 

The Algerian War of Independence took place from 1954 to 1962 and was a conflict characterised by the Algerian Movement for independence from France. The independence movement began during World War 1 and really gained momentum after the French promised greater self rule to Algeria after World War 2. In 1954 the National Liberation Front (FLN) started the war with guerilla warfare against the French and also tried gaining recognition from the UN, asking for their sovereignty to be respected internationally. After Charles de Gaulle came into power in 1959 there came a major turning point in the war; the French military could advance in Algeria. However, many people in France were critical of the war that their government was waging in Algeria. Therefore, Charles de Gaulle decided that independence was inevitable and with several referendums in Algeria and France, Algeria was declared independent on July 3, 1962. 

Definition of Key Terms

• National Liberation Front: The National Liberation Front was the main revolutionary and nationalist organisation in Algeria that led the independence movement from 1954 onwards. It is still one of the most important political parties in Algeria today. 

• Guerilla Warfare: Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare characterised by small, often mobile, and lightly armed groups using hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and sabotage to achieve their military and political objectives against a larger, more conventional adversary.

• Café Wars: The Café Wars took place during the War and were characterised by a series of violent battles in urban areas in Algeria where the FLN fought the French Military. 

• Pieds Noir: French Farmers that lived and worked on land originally owned by native Algerians. 

• Soustelle Plan: A reform program aimed to restore the economic conditions among the population and integrate Muslim Algerians within the French system, designed by the French governor Jaques Soustelle. 

• Harkis: Native Algerian Muslims that represented an opposition to the local FLN fighters and were recruited by the French. 

• ALN: The National Liberation Army was the armed wing of the National Liberation Front. 

• OAS: The organisation armée secrète was an armed right wing organisation created by the Pieds Noirs who felt betrayed by the French Government and aimed at continuing the war. 

• Evian Accords: The Evian Accords were a set of peace treaties signed by the French Government and the Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne. 

Timeline of Events 

November 1, 1954: The FLN starts Guerilla warfare against the French which results in more French military deployment to Algeria. 

March 2, 1955: The French government declares a state of emergency in Algeria in order to deescalate the situation. 

August 20, 1955 / Battle of Philippeville: The FLN attacks the town of Philippeville which causes many civilian deaths and also causes the French to take revenge which kills another 1500 Algerian civilians. 

March 23, 1956: The FLN outlines their goals in the war with the Soummam declaration

May 13, 1956: French troops carry out a coup in Algiers which results in the formation of a new government in Algeria. 

January 29, 1957 / Battle of Algiers: The Battle of Algiers begins. Both sides are heavily engaged in urban warfare.

12 September 1957: The French government grants Algeria a limited amount of self-government, however the FLN rejects the proposal.

January 8, 1958: Charles de Gaulle returns to power and promises to solve the Algerian issue. 

September 16, 1958: Charles de Gaulle announces his plan for the cease-fire in Algeria and makes a self-determination speech in Algeria. 

March 18, 1959: The Evian Accords are signed and plans for an eventual referendum on Algerian independence are shared.

September 20, 1960: Referendum in France - the majority of voters approve de Gaulle’s self-determination plans for Algeria. 

April 8, 1961: A French military coup opposing Algerian independence occurs, the coup fails regardless. 

March 18, 1962: The Evian Accords go into effect which finally leads to the cease-fire in Algeria. 

July 1, 1962: Referendum in Algeria - a clear majority votes for Algeria's independence.

July 3, 1962: Algeria officially declares its independence from France which also marks the end of the war. 

Consequences of the Event

• Independence of Algeria. 

• The decolonization of Algeria marked the beginning of French decolonization as France granted independence to many other colonies after the war. 

• The Algerian War had an impact internationally as many African countries were inspired and started independence movements following the outcome of the Algerian war. 

• The conflict contributed to Cold War dynamics in the region as the USSR supported the FLN and the US supported France.