The length force relationship (LFR) between anterior proboscis retractor muscles in Glycera dibranchiata have been studied before, but the LFR of posterior muscles remains unclear. In this study, the LFR of muscles in the 30s and 50s groups were measured by isolating and stimulating the muscle in a force transducer device. The proboscis retractor muscles are organized metamerically, and we hypothesize that the more anterior muscles experience substantially greater tensile strain during proboscis eversions than those located more posteriorly. While the active forces were relatively similar in all muscle groups, the passive force was much higher in the posterior groups. Our study suggests that (1) There is an extrinsic difference, with the posterior muscles having more or different connective tissues, and/or (2) there is an intrinsic difference, with posterior muscles possessing less extendable sarcomere proteins. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program, the National Science Foundation, the Dr. E. Paul and Frances H. Reiff endowment and the Huffnagle Grant.

Project Mentor: Professor Joseph Thompson, Department of Biology

The length force relationship (LFR) between anterior proboscis retractor muscles in Glycera dibranchiata have been studied before, but the LFR of posterior muscles remains unclear. In this study, the LFR of muscles in the 30s and 50s groups were measured by isolating and stimulating the muscle in a force transducer device. The proboscis retractor muscles are organized metamerically, and we hypothesize that the more anterior muscles experience substantially greater tensile strain during proboscis eversions than those located more posteriorly. While the active forces were relatively similar in all muscle groups, the passive force was much higher in the posterior groups. Our study suggests that (1) There is an extrinsic difference, with the posterior muscles having more or different connective tissues, and/or (2) there is an intrinsic difference, with posterior muscles possessing less extendable sarcomere proteins. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program, the National Science Foundation, the Dr. E. Paul and Frances H. Reiff endowment and the Huffnagle Grant.

Project Mentor: Professor Joseph Thompson, Department of Biology

During 5 weeks of research with Professor Stephanie McNulty, we looked at participatory budgeting in several places. Part of our work entailed finalizing a book on Reimagining Democracy, where Professor McNulty explores the history and origins of participatory democratic practices. We also did research on ways to market this book on democratic podcasts and updated Professor McNulty's professional website with her newly published works. We also revised multiple documents like her book proposals, her annotated bibliography. We also worked on an annotated bibliography about indigenous participatory democracies in Peru, Nigeria, and India; transcribed interviews on São Paulo’s community councils and the political polarization’s effect on them; and pulled data from Peru community councils’ database of attendees. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Stephanie McNulty, Department of Government

Air quality is a critical public health issue, particularly in Lancaster County, PA, which ranks among the nation's worst. Sources of air pollution are poorly understood. With a population of 552,597, of which 13% have asthma, County residents face heightened risks of chronic respiratory diseases. This study investigates particulate matter (PM2.5) composition and pollution sources. Air particles were collected every two-weeks since January 2023 on 3-micron glass-fiber filters using a RadeCO air sampler. Elemental analyses, using a Hitachi SU 3900 Scanning Electron Microscope (EDS-mode), revealed elevated Na, Mg, Al, S, Fe, and C, and trace metals. Principal Component Analysis identified clusters suggesting silicate dust (Si, Al, K), drywall combustion (Ca, S), and industrial or vehicular emissions (Fe, Mg, Mn, Co, Zn). Complementary fieldwork and satellite imagery documented widespread private waste incineration. Our novel findings indicate specific pollution sources, which helps policy and public health agencies make informed decisions. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the Geoscience Founders’ Society.

Project Mentor:  Professor Robert Walter, Department of  Earth and Environment

Sensitive data collected by Android apps is vulnerable to security exploits and leaks, and it is difficult to fix these vulnerabilities as apps are usually closed source and do not disclose how data is stored and shared with third parties. Our solution is to add a new feature to our pre-existing software package Stigma, which allows users to edit the code of Android apps.  This new feature is program slicing. Our system takes data from a register as input and goes line by line through the target app code, from Stigma, determining what actions are taken with the sensitive data and performing jumps to other files in the codebase when necessary. Our solution outputs a directed graph displaying the data flow of the sensitive data, which can be used to find potential vulnerabilities. We tested our program slicing with Telegram’s Android app. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Ed Novak, Department of Computer Science

Unlike woven or solid materials, the elasticity of a knit is not primarily determined by the material of the yarn, but by how the yarn loops are arranged and interact. This makes knits useful for designing highly deformable, tunable materials. To harness this adjustability, we need accurate models that can predict mechanical responses under different knitting parameters. One key parameter is gauge, or the number of loops per unit length, which directly affects loop geometry and therefore the overall fabric elasticity.  In this project, we fabricated knitted samples with different gauges, measured their stress–strain behavior through starches testing, and compared experimental results with model predictions. Stress and strain were calculated to quantify stretchability, and the resulting curves highlight both similarities and gaps between experiments and simulations. Our study revealed several experimental variables that were difficult to control. While the measured stress–strain curves exhibit the same general shape as the simulations, the ordering of how the curves shift with gauge differs between experiment and model.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Etienne Gagnon, Department of Physics and Astronomy

Our research investigates the origins of and processes undergone by sediment from a stream bank at White Clay Creek Nature Preserve, southeastern Pennsylvania. Previous research showed that this sediment was deposited >12,000 yrs ago, during the late Pleistocene Epoch. Our goal is to better understand frost action in the mid-Atlantic region during Pleistocene periglacial conditions. Examining fingerprints of past weathering mechanisms on sand-sized quartz grains will give insight into sediment transport in ongoing stream restoration work. During the Last Glacial Maximum, glaciers did not reach the modern White Clay Creek. However, the region had permafrost and periglacial cold-climate conditions. Evidence of a possible relict periglacial alluvial fan is seen in the topography, and a possible debris apron is present in an eroding streambank. Scanning electron microscopic analysis of sand grains from samples  taken from these possible periglacial landforms is assisting us in  reconstructing  paleoclimatic conditions associated with their formation. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program, the Geoscience Founders’ Society and the Robert and Dorothy Foose Endowment.

Project Mentors:  Professors Dorothy Merritts, James Jolles and Robert Walter, Department of  Earth and Environment

The incorporation of vibrational-reporter-containing unnatural amino acids (UAAs) into a protein sequence can give insight into the local environment and structure of the protein. The Heme-nitric oxide and/or oxygen (H-NOX) protein has previously been shown to bind cyanide (CN–) at the heme, and that 4-Cyano-L-Phenylalanine (pCNF) can be site-specifically incorporated without significantly affecting protein structure. It is hypothesized that by incorporating both of these vibrational reporters into the same H-NOX protein with CN– at the heme and pCNF at some other site, the degree of vibrational coupling between the two groups can be used to determine the distance between them. Additionally, pCNF incorporation can give insight into the local solvation of different areas of the protein. UV-visible and IR data for various Caldanaerobacter subterraneus H-NOX mutants containing both CN– and pCNF will be presented, providing the starting point for a tool that can be used to characterize proteins. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the National Science Foundation Career Grant.

Project Mentors:  Professors Christine Piro and Scott Brewer, Department of Chemistry

Ion exchange is an essential postsynthetic modification for the creation of complex nanoheterostructures. In an ion exchange, specific ions are removed from a material’s crystal lattice and a different ion is incorporated to fill the vacancies. This is crucial to preserving the material’s morphology as well as the crystal packing structure. We aimed to assess the cooperativity of multiple postsynthetic modifications by conducting a tellurium anion exchange on Cu2-xS nanorods then performing a cadmium cation exchange on the resulting product. Clumping of our nanorods in TEM imaging made dimensional analysis of the particles impossible because we could not confirm that our rods maintained their morphology. By changing the amounts of reagents used in our reaction and experimenting with new surface ligands, we sought to improve the dispersion of our nanorods. We found success by adding 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid to our complex, resulting in improved dispersal of the nanorods and decreased aggregation. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the National Science Foundation Career Grant.

Project Mentor:  Professor Kate Plass, Department of Chemistry

The quiet ego—characterized by detached awareness, inclusive identity, perspective‑taking, and growth‑mindedness—balances concern for self and others through a growth‑oriented mindset. Prior work links quiet ego to eudaimonic well‑being, yet its role in connecting reflections on past challenges to future orientation remains underexamined. We test whether narrative processing mediates associations between quiet ego and future‑oriented outcomes. Undergraduates from Franklin & Marshall College and Weber State University (Wave 1: N=126; Wave 2: n=76) completed the Quiet Ego Scale and the Future Time Perspective Scale, and wrote narratives about a significant past challenge and a future life script; narratives will be coded for exploratory processing and meaning making. Planned analyses evaluate whether higher quiet ego predicts greater narrative exploration and meaning making, which in turn predict a more expansive future time perspective, more articulated future goals, and a higher proportion of intrinsically motivated goals. Findings will clarify how quiet ego supports forward‑looking identity development through autobiographical narrative processing. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the Harring-Wittenbraker Endowment.

Project Mentor:  Professor Cade Mansfield, Department of Psychology

Large Language Models (LLMs) are powerful but slow when processing long documents, as they must repeatedly re-encode inputs during token-by-token generation. Speculative decoding offers a potential solution by using a smaller draft model to generate tokens and a larger model to verify them, reducing inference latency. In this project, we explored whether LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation) adapters could improve draft model performance in this setting. We first generated synthetic question: answer datasets from long-document corpora using LLaMA-8B, then trained LoRA adapters on a smaller LLaMA-1B model. Our evaluation compared speculative decoding performance with and without LoRA adapters across acceptance rate metrics. Contrary to our expectations, LoRA-trained draft models showed lower token acceptance and slower decoding than baseline models.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholar Program. 

Project Mentor:  Professor Bradley McDanel, Department of Computer Science

Hatchling longfin squid (D. pealeii) cannot maintain their position in the water column with fin movement alone, and require both jetting and fin motion to avoid sinking. Adult D. pealeii, however, can maintain their position in the water column with fin motion alone. As D. pealeii mature, the morphology of their fins changes, which might cause the difference in ability. To test this hypothesis, previously fixed hatchling squid tissue was embedded in GMA, stained with dyes (Toluidine Blue or Picrosirius Red) selective for muscle and connective tissues, then viewed with light microscopy. The structure of the hatchling squid fins was then compared to adult fin muscle. There were several clear differences between them, with the most prominent being a lack of median fascia and a lack of obvious organization in the hatchling squid muscles. These differences could contribute to squid hatchlings’ inability to maintain position in the water column. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Committee on Grants Program. 

Project Mentor:  Professor Joseph Thompson, Department of Biology

Our project about Marshall College aims to fill in informational gaps identified in the Legacy of Slavery at F&M report completed in 2022. Franklin College history and John Marshall had been thoroughly discussed, but very little had been written about Marshall College. Our central research question was: “What were the attitudes and involvements with regards to slavery and abolition within Marshall College and Mercersburg?” We searched various archives and databases to learn more about the geographic landscape, local college history, and social attitudes within Mercersburg, PA. We identified interactions between the African American community and Marshall College, the majority of which were through employment at the College. We also researched a region close to Mercersburg called “Little Africa,” a free Black community that included many freedpeople. Finally, we looked at the literary works of notable Marshall College alumni to learn more about individual attitudes about slavery and abolition, and the influence of religion on these viewpoints. This project was supported by funding from the Mellon Humanities for All Times: Reckoning with Lancaster Grant. 

Project Mentors:  Professor Peter Jaros, Department of English and Professor Cristina Perez, Department of American Studies

4-cyano-L-phenylalanine (pCNF) is an unnatural amino acid which can be used in combination with FT-IR spectroscopy as a reporter of local environments in a protein . The nitrile stretch of this amino acid occurs in a quiet region of the infrared spectrum and the site-specific incorporation of pCNF does not significantly alter the protein structure. Thus, the nitrile stretch of pCNF can be observed relatively easily using FT-IR and given its sensitivity to hydrogen bonding, provides information regarding the local environment within a protein. For this investigation, pCNF was incorporated into various sites within the protein adenylate kinase using Amber codon suppression methodology. The protein constructs were then examined using temperature-dependent FT-IR spectroscopy to discover changes in hydration with temperature. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the National Science Foundation.

Project Mentors:  Professors Christine Piro, Scott Brewer and Ken Hess, Department of Chemistry

The iron sulfide pathway is one of three possible pathways for molybdenum (Mo) sequestration, which involves the adsorption of Mo to FeS. This research aims to examine the effects of pH, oxygen levels, and the presence or absence of previously sorbed tetrathiomolybdate on FeS transformation. More specifically, FeS with varying amounts of sorbed Mo were used to assess Mo’s impact on solid-state phase changes using different temperatures, pH, aging, and the presence or absence of oxygen. The solid phase iron sulfide was characterized using powder X-ray diffraction. The release of Mo and Fe to the aqueous phase was quantified using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, while the speciation of tetrathiomolybdate was assessed using spectrophotometry. Results showed that high pH, especially in oxic conditions, resulted in Mo release, although oxic results require future testing. This work provides a foundation for understanding Mo in past oceanic chemistry. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and the National Science Foundation.

Project Mentor:  Professor Jennifer Morford, Department of Chemistry

When it comes to LGBT+ human rights, the Francophone countries may appear to be somewhat dichotomous. At first glance, African countries are more persecuting than their Global North counterparts, but this coincides with a history of imperialism in the lower-scoring countries. As reflected in data from the F&M Global Barometers (FMGB), which quantify state protections, societal persecution, and lived experiences, the majority of Francophone countries actively persecute sexual orientation (SO) and gender identity (GI) minorities. Closer analysis, using data from the F&M Global Barometer of Unified LBGT Rights (GBUR) and the F&M Global Barometers LGBTQI+ Perception Index (GBPI), reveals nuances and diversity regarding LGBT+ rights within each country and subregion.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Susan Dicklitch-Nelson, Department of Government

The aim of this research was to develop an efficient and successful method to deuterate the terminal alkyne of the non-canonical amino acid (ncAA) 4-ethynyl-L-phenylalanine (pCCF). The C-D bond can serve as a vibrational probe in proteins to study their local environments. The synthesis and deuteration of pCCF will be presented. Deuteration was found to be most successful at the protected pCCF stage using triethyl amine and D2O, which provided an overall yield of 86% with 94% deuteration. IR spectroscopy in various solvents was then utilized to study the deuterated alkyne of protected pCCF.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program and Eyler Fund.

Project Mentor:  Professor Edward Fenlon, Department of Chemistry

This study is the first step in a larger project exploring how Extended Reality (XR) technologies, including Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), can enhance technical skill training through personalized, adaptive, and immersive experiences. Specifically, it investigates opportunities for developing automated psychomotor training systems from the perspective of local organizations that use these skills. Through interviews, we aim to identify current demand for psychomotor skills, existing training systems, and desired features of future automated systems. We have developed interest surveys, questionnaires, and needed materials. Ultimately, the project seeks to expand workforce readiness and career mobility, particularly for adults lacking access to higher education.

This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Emily Jensen, Department of Computer Science

​​Whether through health, leisure, or environmental concerns, water has a profound impact on people’s livelihoods and the economy. Yet estimating its economic value is challenging because water is a public good without a direct market price. Our research addresses this by assessing the economic value of water quality through three ecological goods and services valued by people: children’s health, fish health, and flood risk mitigation. We linked these services to six water quality indicators measured by the Chesapeake Watershed Initiative (CWI) team at Franklin & Marshall College: Nitrates (mg/L), Phosphorus (mg/L), Turbidity (NTU), E. Coli (CFU/ 100mL), Water Temperature (℉), and Discharge (cFs). Using expert elicitation via AI platforms, we connected the indicators to health and environmental outcomes. Our findings suggest that children’s health is most affected by Nitrates, E. Coli, Water Temperature, and Discharge; fish health by Nitrates, Phosphorus, Turbidity, Water Temperature, and Discharge; and flood risk is less directly tied to these measures. Future work will estimate residents’ willingness to pay in the Little Conestoga watershed using non-market valuation techniques.  This project was supported by funding from F&M’s Committee on Grants Program and the Bolton Humanities and Social Sciences Student Exploration Endowment. 

Project Mentor:  Professor Patrick Fleming, Department of Economics

4-Cyano-L-Phenylalanine (pCNF) is a non-canonical amino acid (ncAA) that can be utilized to probe local environments in proteins. pCNF shows potential as a distance reporter when used with two-dimensional infrared (2D-IR) spectroscopy, due to its minimal impact on protein structure and its sensitivity to subtle structural changes in the surrounding environment. Site-specific incorporation of pCNF into proteins is achieved through a combination of site directed mutagenesis and the Amber codon suppression methodology. These protocols were used to replace buried sites F101 and Y93 with pCNF in Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Crystallography procedures were then performed to set crystal trays of GFP mutants in hopes of obtaining crystals for further studies. This project was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation Career Award.

Project Mentor:  Professor Christine Piro, Department of Chemistry

A combination of experimental optical studies and computational modeling,  this project explores the energy levels of Eu3+ doped into a LaAlO3 perovskite host material. Combustion-synthesized samples are investigated through optical spectroscopy to measure the transitions between 4f electronic energy levels. Ligand Field Density Functional Theory (LF-DFT) calculations on the oxide materials are used to model the system and predict the 4f6 energy level spectrum. The computed energies agree with the experimental emission spectra, to within a few hundred wavenumbers. This study is the first application of LF-DFT to impurity ion energy levels in an oxide host.

This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Ken Krebs, Department of Physics and Astronomy

This project focuses on developing a backend system for drone pilot training  in XR. Using Unity, the system combines custom coding in C# with Unity’s built-in tools to create an immersive virtual reality simulation of drone flight. The goal is to provide a safe, adaptable training environment that can be applied to multiple contexts.  During my time, I developed a functional backend that connected directly with the XR and its controllers, enabling users to control the drone’s speed and three-dimensional movements. The system continuously tracked the drone’s position, velocity, and the input magnitude from XR controllers, which will be used to provide performance feedback to the users. We implemented a live data display within the VR screen to present this information during training sessions. This work demonstrates the feasibility of XR as a practical tool for drone pilot education and establishes a working foundation for further enhancements in professional training.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Emily Jensen, Department of Computer Science

The protoplanetary nebulae (PPN) stage lies between the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) and planetary nebula (PN) phases in the evolution of low-mass stars. Although notable work has been done to investigate the molecular composition of AGB stars and PNe, limited information is available concerning the molecular content of PPNe. Understanding the molecular makeup of PPNe is important, as research suggests that much of the evolution in molecular compositions between the AGB and PN stages occurs in the PPN phase. In order to expand the number of PPNe in which molecules have been detected, a search for CO conducted in a set of PPNe with no previous molecular directions. If CO was detected, that source was then searched for other common molecules, namely HCO+, HCN, and HNC. Observations were made using ARO and IRAM radio telescopes. Data was processed using CLASS, and column densities were calculated using the rotational diagram method.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Deborah Schmidt, Department of Physics and Astronomy

All life depends on energy, and most organisms metabolize sugars through the enzyme GAPDH. This work examines GAPDH structures across species, from the pathogen Francisella tularensis to coral symbionts (Cladocopium, Durasdinium) and humans. For F. tularensis, the goal is to create a structural template for docking small molecules, screening millions of compounds to find those that inhibit FtGAPDH but spare human GAPDH. Experimentally validated hits could lead to new tularemia treatments. In corals, comparing thermally stable and sensitive GAPDH structures may reveal why some symbionts withstand warming, offering insights into coral bleaching. In humans, GAPDH is linked to tumor metabolism. The compound 3BP blocks this enzyme but causes severe side effects. By resolving how 3BP binds, we aim to design safer, more effective analogs. A provisional structure is complete, and optimization is underway to improve resolution by removing the purification tag. This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program, the Eyler Fund and the Frederick H. Suydam, PhD, Chemistry Student Research Endowed Fund.

Project Mentor:  Professor Gabriel Brandt, Department of Chemistry

Small gas-releasing molecules (GRMs) liberate gas upon undergoing a chemical reaction, making them a valuable method to deliver gaseous reagents for organic synthesis while reducing laboratory hazards. The Tasker lab has previously worked on developing carbon monoxide (CO) GRMs, resulting in successful stoichiometric and catalytic reagents. More recently, we have focused on redesigning our reagents to deliver carbonyl sulfide (COS). This summer, we refined synthetic procedures, monitored reaction kinetics, optimized gas-releasing conditions, and tested the COS GRM’s applicability. Through our research, we discovered the conversion of our GRM to the expected byproduct and trapped COS gas in low yield. Continued work remains to further optimize conditions for room-temperature gas release, expand on the kinetic study with electron-donating and electron-withdrawing group substituents, and adjust the structure of the GRM to alter the triggering conditions needed to release gas.

This project was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation Career Award.

Project Mentor:  Professor Sarah Tasker, Department of Chemistry

Iron sulfides make up a significant part of the sulfur cycle, a process that relates to the formation of life on Earth. These iron sulfides also react with trace metals in oceans. In the case of molybdenum (Mo), its redox sensitivity allows for the determination of past oceanic redox conditions but the way in which it is captured in marine sediments is less well understood. The goal of this project is to better understand how iron sulfides influence Mo geochemistry. Partial dissolution, the act of sequentially dissolving samples, is used to determine if Mo resides in a particular iron sulfide phase. The current study focused on how the dissolution procedure applied to single iron sulfide phases, such as mackinawite, pyrite, and greigite. It then went on to identify which phase certain synthesized samples identify with.  This project was supported by funding from the F&M Hackman Summer Scholars Program.

Project Mentor:  Professor Jennifer Morford, Department of Chemistry