Relationships

Addition words signal added ideas. These words tell the reader that you are presenting one or more ideas that continue along the same line of thought as a previous idea.

Which item below is easier to read and understand?

1. Many people rent DVDs because rental is cheaper than tickets to a movie theater. DVDs are now available online as well as in stores.

2. Many people rent DVDs because rental is cheaper than tickets to a movie theater. Also, DVDs are now available online as well as in stores.

You probably found the second item easier to understand.

The author is providing reasons why renting movies is popular. The first reason is that renting DVDs is cheaper than buying tickets to the movies. A second reason is that the movies are so readily available. The word also makes it clear that another reason is being given.

Here are some common addition words:

• Also

• And

• Next

• Lastly

• Additionally

• First

• Another

• Similarly

• Second

• Last

• Furthermore

• First of all

• Finally

• For one thing

• The third reason

• Likewise

• In addition

• Last of all

• Moreover

• Secondly

The List of Items

A list of items refers to a series of reasons, examples, or other points that support an idea. The items have no time order, but are listed in whatever order the writer prefers.

These use many of the same words as addition words.

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third? Last?

1. One common strategy is to consume massive quantities of junk food, which is easily done thanks to all the ever-present convenience stores and fast-food restaurants.

2. There are some widely popular, inappropriate methods that people use to combat stress.

3. Finally, watching hours of nonstop TV can put people in a stupor that helps them forget the problems of everyday life.

4. Another way to deal with stress is to doze or sleep for hours and hours, even during the day.

The sentences should read as follows:

There are some widely popular, inappropriate methods that people use to combat stress. One common strategy is to consume massive quantities of junk food, which is easily done thanks to all the ever-present convenience stores and fast-food restaurants. Another way to deal with stress is to doze or sleep for hours and hours, even during the day. Finally, watching hours of nonstop TV can put people in a stupor that helps them forget the problems of everyday life.

This paragraph begins with the topic sentence. The next three sentences go on to list three of the methods. The result is the pattern of organization known as a list of items.

Addition words are often used in a list of items to tell us that other supporting points are being added to a point already mentioned.

Here are some common addition words used in a list of items pattern:

• One

• Also

• Next

• Further

• First (of all)

• Second(ly)

• Third(ly)

• Another

• To begin with

• Furthermore

• Last (of all)

• In addition

• Final(ly)

• Moreover

• For one thing

• Other

Time words tell the reader when something happened in relation to when something else happened.

Which item below is easier to read and understand?

1. The two neighboring families used to get along well. They are not on speaking terms.

2. Previously, the two neighboring families got along well. Now they are not on speaking terms.

You probably found the second item easier to understand.

The words previously and now in the second item clarify the relationship between the sentences: Before, the families got along well; and now they don’t speak to each other.

Previously and now and words like them are time words.

Here are some common time words:

• Before

• Previously

• First (of all)

• Second(ly)

• Third(ly)

• By

• Immediately

• Next

• Then

• Following

• Later

• After

• When

• Whenever

• While

• During

• As (soon as)

• Now

• Until

• Often

• Frequently

• Eventually

• Final(ly)

• Last (of all)

Note: Some additional ways of showing time are dates (“in 1890…,” “Throughout the 20^th century…,” “By 2018…”) and other time references (“Within a week…,” “By the end of the month…,” “In two years…”).

The Time Order Pattern

Writers usually present events in the order in which they happen, resulting in the time order pattern of organization.

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third? Last?

1. Next, the two people declare themselves a couple, telling friends and relatives about the new person in their lives.

2. The two people then make a commitment to have an exclusive relationship with each other.

3. A relationship begins when two people show interest in each other and choose to spend time together.

4. Last, the two people formalize the relationship by cohabitation or marriage.

Clues to the order of the above sentences are time transitions.

The sentences should read as follows:

A relationship begins when two people show interest in each other and choose to spend time together. The two people then make a commitment to have an exclusive relationship with each other. Next, the two people declare themselves a couple, telling friends and relatives about the new person in their lives. Last, the two people formalize the relationship by cohabitation or marriage.

Time words used in the time order pattern:

• Before

• Previously

• First (of all)

• Second(ly)

• Third(ly)

• By

• Immediately

• Next

• Then

• Following

• Later

• After

• When

• Whenever

• While

• During

• As (soon as)

• Now

• Until

• Often

• Frequently

• Eventually

• Final(ly)

• Last (of all)

Note: Some additional ways of showing time are dates (“in 1890…,” “Throughout the 20^th century…,” “By 2018…”) and other time references (“Within a week…,” “By the end of the month…,” “In two years…”).

In addition to the time transitions listed above, signals for the time order pattern include such words as stages, series, steps, and process.

Common Types of Time Order

The two most common kinds of time order are:

1. A Series of Events or Stages: How something progresses through time

Example: Children master language in predictable stages. First, at about six months, babies start to repeat simple sounds, such as “ma-ma-me-me.” About three or four months later, they can repeat sounds that others make and carry on little conversations. These interchanges are rich in emotional meaning, although the sounds themselves are meaningless. At the next stage, toddlers learn the meanings of many words, but they cannot yet talk. A toddler might understand a sentence such as “Bring me your sock” but be unable to say any of the words. Finally, the child begins to talk in single words and in two-word sentences.

2. A Series of Steps: Directions for how to do something

Example: Here is a six-step technique that will help you relax quickly. First, lie down with your arms at your sides and your fingers open. When you are comfortable, close your eyes and put all distracting thoughts out of your mind. Next, tighten all the muscles of your body at once. Do this by pushing your toes together, tightening your buttocks and abdomen, clenching your fists, and squeezing your eyes shut. Then, let everything relax, and feel the tension flow out of your body. After that, take a deep breath through your mouth, hold it for twenty seconds, and then let it out slowly, breathing slowly and easily, as you do when you are sleeping. Finally, think of a pleasant scene as you feel your whole body becoming calm and relaxed.

Illustration words indicate that an author will provide one or more examples to develop and clarify a given idea.

Which item below is easier to understand?

1. I’ve become very absent-minded. Last week I went to work on my day off.

2. I’ve become very absent-minded. Last week, for instance, I went to work on my day off.

The second item is easier to understand. The words for instance make it clear that what happened on that day off is just one example of the absent-mindedness.

Here are some common words that introduce illustrations/examples:

• (For) example

• (For) instance

• (As an) illustration

• Such as

• Including

• Specifically

• To be specific

• To illustrate

• One

• Once

The Definition and Example Pattern

The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?

1. Someone might, for instance, sit calmly through a friend’s criticism and act as if it didn’t bother him or her.

2. Apathy is an avoidance response in which a person acknowledges unpleasant information but pretends he or she does not care about it.

3. Another example is responding to the loss of a job by acting indifferent: “Who cares? It was a dumb job anyhow.”

The sentences should read as follows:

Apathy is an avoidance response in which a person acknowledges unpleasant information but pretends he or she does not care about it. Someone might, for instance, sit calmly through a friend’s criticism and act as if it didn’t bother him or her. Another example is responding to the loss of a job by acting indifferent: “Who cares? It was a dumb job anyhow.”

This paragraph begins with a definition of the word apathy. The second sentence gives an example signaled by the words for instance. The third sentence then provides another example, introduced by the words Another example.

When you hear the phrase, "compare and contrast," it is directing you to show the similarities and differences between objects. Let's review how authors show the similarities and differences between concepts and ideas in their writing.

Words that Show Comparison

Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a comparison transition to show that a second idea is like the first one in some way.

Which item below is easier to understand?

1. Driving a car is a skill that we learn through practice. Writing a paper is a skill that we learn through hands-on experience.

2. Driving a car is a skill that we learn through practice. Similarly, writing a paper is a skill that we learn through hands-on experience.

The first item makes us wonder, “What has learning to drive a car got to do with writing a paper?” In the second item, however, the transition word similarly makes it clear that the author intends to compare learning to write a paper with learning to drive a car.

Here are some common words that show comparison:

• (Just) as

• (Just) like

• Alike

• Same

• Compare

• Comparison

• Both

• Equal(ly)

• Resemble

• Likewise

• Similar(ly)

• Similarity

• In like manner

• In a similar fashion

• In a similar manner

• (In) the same way

• (In) common

• In like fashion

Words that Show Contrast

Contrast words shows that two things differ in one or more ways.

Which item below is easier to understand?

1. A roller coaster scares many people. They love riding on it.

2. Even though a roller coaster scares many people, they love riding on it.

In the first item, the two sentences seem to contradict each other. We want to ask, “Do people like a roller coaster, or don’t they?” In the second item, the phrase even though makes clear the relationship between the two ideas: In spite of the fact that a roller coaster is scary, people still love riding on it.

Here are some common words that show contrast:

• But

• Yet

• However

• Although

• Nevertheless

• Still

• Different(ly)

• While

• Instead (of)

• In contrast

• On the other hand

• (On the) contrary

• Converse(ly)

• Opposite

• Differ (from)

• Contradict

• Even though

• As opposed to

• In spite of

• Despite

• Rather than

• Difference

• Unlike

• Devil's advocate

The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern

Writers use a comparison pattern to show how two things are alike. Writers use a contrast pattern to show how two things are different.

Sometimes a writer will compare and contrast in the same paragraph, pointing out both similarities and differences between two things.

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?

1. Yet the large, hairy tarantula is relatively harmless, while the small brown recluse is dangerously poisonous.

2. The tarantula and the brown recluse are more different than they are similar.

3. It’s true that both spiders are alike in inspiring a great deal of fear.

The sentences should read as follows:

The tarantula and the brown recluse are more different than they are similar. It’s true that both spiders are alike in inspiring a great deal of fear. Yet the large, hairy tarantula is relatively harmless, while the small brown recluse is dangerously poisonous.

The first sentence of this paragraph is the general one, the one with the main idea. The words similar and different suggest a comparison and/or contrast pattern of organization.

The comparison words both and alike and the contrast words yet and while in the other two sentences show that the spiders are indeed being compared and contrasted.

Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason why something happened or the result of something happening.

Which item below is easier to understand?

1. The paint has worn off the wooden siding. Fungus has begun to grow on it.

2. Because the paint has worn off the wooden siding, fungus has begun to grow on it.

In the first item, it seems the author is simply listing two things that have happened to the wooden siding. The word because in the second item makes clear the relationship between the two ideas—the protective paint wore off, and for this reason, the fungus was able to grow.

Here are some common words that show cause and effect:

• Therefore

• (As a) result

• Because (of)

• (As a) consequence

• Depend(s) on

• Thus

• Consequently

• Due to

• Results in

• Accordingly

• Leads (led) to

• Since

• Owing to

• Effect

• Cause

• If...then

• Affect

• Reason

• Explanation

• Causing

The Cause & Effect Pattern

Information in a cause-effect pattern addresses the questions “Why does a behavior or event happen?” and/or “What are the results of a behavior or event?” An author may then discuss causes, or effects, or both causes and effects.

Try to can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?

1. Growing up without parents around resulted in the monkeys drinking enormous amounts of alcohol.

2. A study of monkeys suggests two factors may lead to alcoholism.

3. Low levels of serotonin in the brain also caused the monkeys to drink more.

The sentences should read as follows:

A study of monkeys suggests two factors may lead to alcoholism. Growing up without parents around resulted in the monkeys drinking enormous amounts of alcohol. Low levels of serotonin in the brain also caused the monkeys to drink more.

As the words lead to, resulted in, and caused suggest, this paragraph is organized in a cause and effect pattern. The paragraph begins with the general idea that two factors may lead to alcoholism in monkeys. Alcoholism is the result or effect. The next two sentences give possible causes of alcoholism.