Inference

TYPES OF INFERENCE

...inference relies on our knowledge of the vocabulary and syntax of a text, our worldly knowledge relating to the context, and our understanding of text structure. The inferences that we make in the process of understanding a text can be divided into two types: local cohesion inferences and global coherence inferences.

Local cohesion inferences, sometimes known as text-connecting inference, are those which directly connect elements within a text, often using single words or phrases. These come in different forms:

• pronouns (e.g. he, it, they)

• nouns preceded by the definite article (e.g. 'the cat' after having introduced 'a cat')

• connectives (e.g. previously, while, instead, because)

• missing words (e.g. 'He jumped in the river and his brother did too.')

• nouns referred to in a different way (e.g. 'He peered into the cavern. The dark expanse echoed.')

Global coherence inferences, sometimes known as gap-filling inferences, are those which rely on general knowledge or wider vocabulary to fill a gap that has been left by the writer. They might support us to understand the setting, character motivations, themes, or purpose of a text. While global inferences aren't necessary to see how sentences fit together, without them the text's meaning seems vague and the wider elements of the text - plot, themes, purpose, etc. - are impossible to grasp.

(The Art & Science of Teaching Primary Reading, Christopher Such)

Inferences can also be defined as either necessary or elaborative.

• Necessary inferences, as the name suggests, are those that are necessary for full appreciation of meaning. All local cohesion inferences are necessary, by definition, but only some global coherence inferences are necessary

• Elaborative inferences are those that go beyond that which is required to understand the meaning of the text. Elaborative inferences can be useful, but just as often they are a hindrance to understanding and need to be suppressed to some extent.

In short, both necessary local cohesion inferences and necessary global coherence inferences are critical in the constructing and updating of a situation model for adequate comprehension of a text. Why is it worth knowing about these types of inferences? Crucially, it allows teachers to appreciate the range of inferences that a child might be struggling to make, and thus to consider in advance what elements of a text might require discussion.

(The Art & Science of Teaching Primary Reading, Christopher Such)

...Each inference relates to a specific bit of text and is the result of knowledge: knowledge of words and syntax, knowledge of the world, and knowledge of text structures. Thus, a person's ability to infer meaning from a text - much like language comprehension in total - is built up like the adding of dots to a pointillist painting. In the case of language comprehension, the dots are fragments of knowledge about words, about the world, and about text structures. While each dot may seem discrete as it is added by the teacher and student acting in concert, it gains its meaning from its connections and context. As teachers of inference - and language comprehension more broadly - the best we can do is to spread the dots evenly across the canvas and dedicate time to giving each student a rich, full canvas from which to make meaning.

What does this mean in practice? It means:

• engaging children in lots of worthwhile texts

• discussing vocabulary, particularly the pronouns and connectives of local cohesion inferences

• picking apart sentence structures using close reading

• analysing various text structures, including the use of graphic organisers

• teaching a curriculum that systematically and thoughtfully increases children's understanding of the world.

(The Art & Science of Teaching Primary Reading, Christopher Such)

While inference is certainly not a generic, transferable skill, it is true that children sometimes fail to make inferences even when they have the requisite knowledge. There is evidence to suggest that comprehension monitoring via self-questioning (including summarising and visualising) - applies equally to situations where children need to make inferences. Teaching children about the need to make inferences is an essential component of comprehension monitoring and one that supports children's understanding of text.

(The Art & Science of Teaching Primary Reading, Christopher Such)