Alactacid System (ATP-PC System)

The ATP system comprises of a large molecule called adenosine and 3 smaller molecules called phosphates. They are all held together by high energy bands; when the last phosphate becomes detached energy stored within the bonds is released. However, after the process, ATP transitions to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), meaning it can no longer supply energy. Accordingly, ADP must be rebuilt, or re-synthesised, back to ATP in order for muscles to keep working.

Source of fuel

Creating Phosphate

Efficiency of ATP production

Rapid supply of ATP through the availability of PC and short explosive movements (e.g. sprinting).

Duration that the system can operate

ATP has a short duration and is exhausted after 1-2 seconds. Further work relies on CP (creatine/phosphate molecule), which is held together by high-energy bonds. When these bonds break, energy is released. Re-synthesis occurs when the energy is used to join the phosphate back to ADP, so it becomes ATP again.

CP has a longer duration and is exhausted after 10-12 seconds.

Cause of fatigue

At maximal/near maximal HR (effort), fatigue is caused by an inability to continually re-synthesise ATP from PC, because PC supplies are quickly exhausted

By-products of energy production

There are no by-products in the Alactacid system

Process and rate of recovery

CP processing rates are relatively quick at rest; supplies are fully restored within 2 minutes.

Lactic Acid System

Source of fuel

Sugar supplies (carbohydrates) in the body consist of glucose, in the blood, and glycogen, stored in muscle cells and liver. The process of using glucose/glycogen is called glycolysis. The breakdown of glucose and glycogen occurs without exposure to oxygen and glycogen much more abundant than CP. The higher the quantity of glycogen, the more energy available to individual.

Efficiency of ATP production

Provides ATP quickly, but requires large amounts of glucose

Duration that the system can operate

High intensity activities lasting 10-30 seconds. Moderate intensity lasting approx. 3 minutes (e.g. 400/800m)

Cause of fatigue

Pyruvic acid – producing lactate (due to insufficient O2). Increase in hydrogen ion concentration

By-products of energy production

Pyruvic acid – producing lactate and hydrogen ions

Process and rate of recovery

Depends on intensity/duration of activity. Somewhere around 20 mins – 2 hours, with shorter recovery assisted by active cool down. After exercise, lactic acid leaves muscles and returns to bloodstream to be stored in kidney, for fuel later on

Aerobic System

Source of fuel

Carbs preferred fuel, fats become important after an hour, also protein (all broken down by oxygen). Virtually unlimited fats in well trained athlete, body will mix carbs/fats

Efficiency of ATP production

Extremely efficient for activity of a lower intensity and prolonged duration

Duration that the system can operate

More than a few minutes. Hours if individual is trained

Cause of fatigue

Depletion of carbs. Depletion of glucose to working muscles. Poor circulation/respiration (fats require more oxygen, thus faster breathing is needed)

By-products of energy production

Water and Carbon Dioxide

Process and rate of recovery

Rate of recovery depends on the duration/intensity of the activity. Could take longer than 24 hours. Replenishment of glycogen is required, which can take several days to digest

Aerobic

Aerobic training usually follows the FITT principle.

Frequency

In order for aerobic training to be effective individuals need to train at least three times a week.

Intensity

There are a number of ways you can test intensity, including the talk test and exertion rating scale. However, the most reliable and most commonly used in method is by measuring the athlete’s heart rate during training.

When in aerobic training, the heart rate is typically fluctuating between 70 to 85 percent of the maximum HR. You can approximate your maximum heart rate by subtracting your age from 220. So for example, 220 minus 26 years equals 194 beats per minute.

Time

In order for individuals to experience the benefits of aerobic fitness, a minimum of 20 minutes is recommended for each session.

Type

There are an array of training types, which people can use to achieve aerobic capacity, some of which are explored in greater detail below.

Continuous Training

Continuous training involves the individual working at a constant pace, continuously (without stopping) for an extended period of time. Sessions of at least 20 minutes of continuous training are needed for any benefits to occur. This type of training is particularly beneficial for athletes who participate in endurance sports like marathon runs or triathlons, where the best strategy is to ensure constant and consistent movement throughout competition.

Fartlek Training

Fartlek training consists of constant exercise with intermittent bursts of high intensity movements every session. For example, an athlete running at 65% intensity, then every 3rd minute sprinting for 30 seconds. Or an athlete could run through terrain with hills or slopes and attempting to consistently maintain their pace throughout the session.

This type of training is beneficial for any athletes who use more than one energy system, while competing. An example would be a soccer player who sprints for the ball, jogs back onside and then defends by jockeying the opposition. Fartlek training is sometimes referred to as speedplay training.

Aerobic Interval Training

Aerobic interval training resembles the fartlek method, with intermittent rest periods replacing occasional high intensity bursts. An athlete may be required to run 3 sides of a football field within a certain number of minutes and then spends the 4th length of the field in recovery, with a specified time allocated for walking and rest.

Typically, when a coach uses this type of training they push athletes to work at a higher intensity because they have the rest period to recover. This type of training allows the athlete to develop both their aerobic and anaerobic fitness.

Circuit Training

When circuit training an athlete completes various exercises with little to no rest between each ’station’. Each “station” has a designated exercise and once an individual has completed that area, they move onto the next one. A station is usually completed either a set period of time or after a set number of reps.

This form of training is effective for athletes who need variety in their training, due to their needs or propensity boredom, whilst keeping their heart rate up. Circuit training ensures that an athlete develops their aerobic, anaerobic and strength systems.

Anaerobic

With anaerobic training, athletes exercise for a short period at a high intensity at over 85% of their athlete’s maximum heart rate.

Anaerobic interval training is a common form of anaerobic training. This method of exercise is more intensive than aerobic interval training and the rest periods are shorter. So an athlete may work for 20 seconds at 90% intensity, then rest for 1 minute. In this example the work to rest ratio is 1:3; the rest time is 3x longer than the work time.

This type of training allows the athlete to test and develop their anaerobic energy system,. This is especially beneficial for athletes whose sport predominantly effects their lactic acid system as they can train their body to continue working while also fighting fatigue, despite the buildup of lactic acid in their muscle cells.

Flexibility

Flexibility refers to the range of motion of joints and muscles. There are various types of stretching an individual can do to increase their flexibility, some of which are described below:

Static Stretching

This is the most common form of stretching, especially for children and novice athletes. It is easy to perform and involves minimal risk as athletes can sense and work within their own limitations. This type of stretching is predominantly used for warm ups and cool downs. It can also be used by individuals who have an injury and are trying to restore their full range of movement, while gently stretching the muscle.

Individuals perform a static stretch by identifying the muscle and then lengthening to its (and their) limit. The idea is to feel a pull or strain, which is slightly uncomfortable but not in any way painful, and then hold the stretch for 30 seconds.

Dynamic Stretching

In health, the term dynamic is used to describe actions of “changing” or “moving”. Dynamic stretching involves using a controlled movement to lengthen and shorten the muscles, usually by mimicking a movement that will be performed regularly in the sport or activity they are about to participate in. The stretch should not force the range of motion to exceed what is natural for that particular movement.

This stretch is relatively safe, although injuries may occur if the athlete has not warmed up properly or attempts to exceed the range of movement of their joints. Because dynamic stretching mimics the movement that will be used in the sport or activity, it is usually incorporated into a warm up routine.

Ballistic Stretching

This is a high risk stretch and should only be used by high level athletes. Ballistic stretching consists of stretching a muscle past its natural range of motion using the body’s momentum. For example, if an athlete bends down to touch their toes, stretching their calves, and then incorporates a bouncing type motion to further extend the stretch. This risk factor is high because an athlete could cause injury to themselves by over stretching the muscle causing a tear.

Ballistic stretching can be beneficial for experienced athletes who want to activate the myotatic (or the stretch) reflex. This is an involuntary muscle contraction which can prevent tears or injury to a muscle which is extended beyond the usual range of motion.

PNF Stretching

PNF, or Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation stretching, requires a second person or static object to help perform the stretch. This method involves lengthening the muscle with a static stretch and then pushing against a consistant resisting force for at least 10 seconds before resting. This process is repeated several times for each muscle.

PNF stretching should not cause any pain. However, if the athlete does not communicate effectively with their partner injuries can occur as static stretch may be pushed beyond the athlete’s limitations.

Flexibility is an important component of an athlete’s fitness regime and can benefit their overall health by:

• Preventing injury

• Reducing the muscle soreness after sport or activity

• Increasing coordination

• Relaxing the muscles during and after sport or activity

Strength Training

Strength refers to how much force or energy a muscle can generate within one contraction. Strength training is an integral element in an athlete’s overall training regime, especially for those who participate in sports, which require creating force (a soccer kick), opposing force (tackling in rugby union), lifting a force (weight lifting) or holding/performing difficult movements (gymnastics).

Strength training typically involves working against a resisting force to develop muscle strength. This process, of developing the muscle to make it bigger and making the connective tissue around it more stable, is called hypertrophy.

There are a range of terms which are used to describe different elements of strength training and which are used when building and planning sessions. These include:

– Resistance: A weight or opposing force

– Rep/s: Short for repetitions, the number of reps describe to how many of the movements must be completed without any rest

– Set/s: The number of reps for each exercise, which should be completed before rest

– Rest: A recovery break, usually between sets.

– RM: RM (repetition maximus) refers to the maximum weight an individual can lift or reps they can complete before they need rest. So for example, if a weight is so heavy that it can only be lifted it once by an athlete it would be classified as 1RM. However, if it could be lifted 15 times before rest is needed it would be 15RM.

There are four types of strength an individual develop during training:

– Absolute: The maximum force a muscle can produce in a single movement

– Power: The force generated for speed. An elite sprinter has a lot of power because they can create a lot of force over a short period of time.

– Endurance: is measured by how many reps an individual can perform before they become fatigued or how many reps can be performed within a specified time frame.

– Relative Strength: The process involved in making a fair comparison between two people of different size. Athletes of smaller stature or weight, who can lift the same weight as taller or heavier individuals have a higher relative strength.

When creating a strength training regime, there are 3 types of resistance programs which could be included:

– Isokinetic: Exercises involving a constant load during the entire process of movement

– Isotonic: Exercises which cause the muscles to lengthen and shorten

– Isometric: Exercises which don’t alter the length of muscles

There are a number of ways you can incorporate these 3 types of resistance in your strength training regime.

Free Weights

Free weights allow the user to complete an array of exercises, causing various kinds of contractions within different muscle groups. Kettle bells, medicine balls, barbells and dumbbells are all examples of free weights and need to be used with caution, as poor technique can lead to injury.

The advantages of free weights include the fact that they are effective for building strength and provide variety as they can be incorporated into a wide range of exercises. Free weights also ensure that athletes experience a greater range of movement. The exercises can closely resemble the movement required for a number of sports and activities and it is easy to adjust resistance to suit different strength needs.

The disadvantages of free weights are the cost, a high risk of injury (usually resulting from poor technique and the time needed to change, load and unload different sized weights.

Own body weight

An individual’s own body weight can be used to develop their strength. Exercises like planking, chin ups, burpee or box jumping all use body weight resistance.

Using the weight of the body as a form of resistance for strength training is effective, and inexpensive. Because no expensive equipment is needed, Athletes can complete training anywhere. Just like free weight training, this method incorporates a range of exercises, which can mimic the movements required particular sports and activities.

Depending on the exercise, it can be challenging for complete novices to correctly perform body weight training. The resistance is also only effective up to a point, Once an athlete has reached their peak they cannot improve their performance. For example, an athlete can only jump so high.

Fixed Weights (machine weights)

Machine weights are popular, as they allow people to isolate the muscle groups they want to improve. Fixed weights can help athletes to adopt the correct postures or positioning and restrict their movements, reducing the risk of injury. Additionally, the user can easily choose and change the resistance.

Training with fixed weights has several advantages. It is suitable and safe for beginners, enabling them to learn correct technique and make it habit before attempting to exercise with free weights. Training with fixed weights also allows individual to complete multiple exercises can be performed on the one machine and apply greater weight with minimal increase in risk.

However, fixed weights are also expensive and take up a lot of space. For advanced weightlifters, the resistance may not be enough. This type of training also does not provide athletes with an opportunity to exercise a wide range of muscle groups.

Hydraulic Resistance

During hydraulic resistance training resistance is continuous and stable throughout the entire movement, working both the agonist and antagonist muscle. For example, strengthening both the bicep and tricep muscles during all stages of the movement.

Although many fixed weights use hydraulic resistance, this is not always the case so it is important to understand both methods. Specially made hydraulic resistance machines are beneficial in that there is no “sticking point”. A sticking point is specific part or angle of a movement, which is difficult, like the initial lift of a bicep curl.

The advantages of hydraulic resistance training include the fact that resistance is stable throughout, agonist and antagonist muscles are developed at the same time and there are no sticking points.

Conversely, this type of training requires expensive equipment and does not allow individuals to use a wide range of muscle groups.

Resistance Bands

Resistance bands were traditionally used for rehabilitation purposes, however due to their convenience and portability, many athletes now incorporate them into their training. Resistance bands can work a wide range of muscle groups, however, to avoid injury it is important to use correct technique.

Resistance bands are inexpensive, portable and can be used to develop a wide range of muscle groups. Athletes who trainwith bands must be aware that poor technique can lead to injury and advanced weightlifters may find that the resistance is not enough.

Stability Balls

Stability balls (or gym balls) can also be used to develop strenth. This form of training focuses on strengthening the core muscles. Many free weight exercises can be used in conjunction with a stability ball.

Like resistance bands, stability balls are popular because they are portable, inexpensive and can be used to develop and strengthen a range of muscle groups. This form of training is suitable for beginners, especially when using own bodyweight as resistance, and can be combined with free weight exercises. However, exercising with poor technique can cause injury, especially if used in conjunction with free weights

Progressive Overload

If athletes want to continue to experience improvements as a result of their training they must incorporate progressive overload. Training alters the body and when these changes occur, the training must to be increased to ensure that the body is consistently and continuously challenged so that further gains can be achieved.

To ensure that training does not result in injury or fatigue, a steady increase is necessary. Overload can be obtained by boosting the duration, repetition, resistance, intensity, frequency and other elements of exercise. If the training load is too high there can be a faster onset of fatigue and a higher risk of injury. If the load is too low improvements to fitness may stall or even decrease.

The benefits of progressive overload may not be immediately apparent with endurance training having the slowest results.

Specificity

Exercises should target the muscles, energy systems and movement patterns specific to an individual’s sport. The activities should reflect the goals and needs of the athlete. Incorporating exercises which mimic movements of the activity or target the muscle groups most commonly used will result in the greatest gains in performance.

Reversibility

Once training is over the adaptations that were made are susceptible to a reversible effect. What occurs is a de-training effect, which causes the physiological gains of training to be reversed. Think of the popular phrase, “use it, or lose it”.

Endurance results often remain for longer than gains in strength training. The reversibility principle typically affects athletes during off-season, injury or extended breaks in training.

Variety

It is important to include variety when training by mixing different types of activities, settings, drills and training types. For example, by mixing, aerobic exercises with resistance training. If athletes perform the same exercise over and over, it can cause boredom and demotivation.

Training Thresholds

Thresholds are the upper limits of each training zone. When an athlete overcomes threshold they can advance to the next level of training. For example, the aerobic threshold occurs when an athlete achieves 70 percent of their maximum heart rate (MHR), which is sufficient to result in improvements. The aerobic training zone is situated between the anaerobic and aerobic thresholds.

The anaerobic (Onset Blood Lactate Accumulation or Lactate transition 2) threshold sits at about 85 percent of an individual’s MHR. Workouts with higher intensity than this stimulate the production of lactic acid in the body, resulting in fatigue, which may cause the athlete or coach to terminate the session earlier than intended.

Aerobic Training

Working at the anaerobic threshold increases the capacity and function of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems.

Strength Training

Strength gains are made when resistance is progressively increased. Training for absolute strength – threshold represented by high resistance/load ensuring that only few repetitions can be completed. If training for strength endurance, threshold is represented in terms of quality, with high number of reps being required to effectively challenge threshold

Warm Up and Cool Down

Warm ups typically last for about 20 minutes, incorporating a basic warm-up then a more specific one. The goal is to prepare the body mentally and physically for the activity ahead.

A basic warmup may involve running, dynamic stretching or aerobic activities. An effective warm up will include activities, which target and prepare the muscle and cardio systems which will be used by the athlete when competing.

Performing cool down exercises facilitates the process of active recovery. Typically, a cool down will involve a low-intensity exercise so that blood lactate levels and the risk of muscle soreness are reduced.

Physiological Adaptations in Response to Training

Resting Heart Rate

Monitoring the heart rate is a reliable indicator of how hard the heart is working. Due to an efficient stroke volume, after training there is usually a reduction in the resting heart rate. This is more apparent during the recovery phase of training, as athletes with stronger hearts recover faster.

Stroke Volume

The stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during a contraction (beat). An increased stroke volume exists at rest and during exercise because the heart increases in size during, and due to, training.

Cardiac Output

The cardio output is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart, per minute. It is calculated using the following formula: Heart Rate x stroke volume. The cardiac output at rest is similar for both trained and untrained athletes due to the extra stroke volume being offset by a decreased heart rate (trained athlete). When training at maximum intensity, a trained athlete has higher cardiac output.

Oxygen Uptake

The uptake is the amount of oxygen the body uses in a minute and describes the ability of the working muscles to use delivered oxygen. The primary benefit of aerobic training is the increase in oxygen uptake levels. These improvements are caused a boost in the activity of myoglobin, enzyme, mitochondria and capillaries. Mitochondria uses oxygen to produce energy, leading to higher VO2 readings.

Lung Capacity

Lung capacity is a term used to describe the amount of air, which moves in and out of the lungs during a breath. Training can increase maximal ventilation but lung capacity generally stays unchanged.

Haemoglobin Level

Haemoglobin is a substance which binds to oxygen and transports it around the body. Endurance training increases haemoglobin levels, boosting red blood cells and blood plasma numbers. This means athletes are able to increase their oxygen carrying capabilities and improve their aerobic performance. Training in a high altitude environment can temporarily increase haemoglobin levels.

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy is the growth of muscle as a result of training. Resistance training can increase the size of both muscles and muscle cells. The reverse of this process is referred to as muscular atrophy and occurs when muscles are unstimulated and undeveloped.

There is an increase in muscle size after training due to increase in amount of:

– Actin and myosin filament: thin protein filaments which activate muscles

– Myofibrils: contractile elements of muscles

– Connective tissue: tissue surrounding and supporting muscle

Training plans must incorporate the overload principle in order to ensure muscle hypertrophy. Specificity is particularly important, targeting relevant muscles/regions of body which need development.

Effect on Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers (ST or Red muscle Fibres)

Slow twitch fibres are effective in endurance events such as long distance running and swimming or cycling. When developed, there is an increase in hypertrophy, myoglobin content enzymes, mitochondrial function, glycogen stores and capillary supply. Slow twitch fibres are more efficient at using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), creating a resistance to fatigue.

Aerobic training can result in:

– Hypertrophy of ST fibres

– Increased capillary supply to muscle fibres meaning an increase in blood supply (more oxygen to working muscles)

– Increased number/size of mitochondria (energy factory of cells) leading to more efficient energy production

– Increase in myoglobin content (oxygen travels from cell membrane to mitochondria)

Effect on Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers (FT or white muscle fibres) –

These fibres contract quickly facilitating explosive movements over a short duration. Developing these fibres is useful for anaerobic events, short intervals and resistance training. Benefits from anaerobic training are quickly apparent but cause fatigue to set in rapidly.

Anaerobic training can result in:

– Increased efficiency of ATP/PC supplies

– Hypertrophy of FT fibres

– Increased tolerance to lactic acid

– Faster/more forceful muscle contractions due to greater number of FT fibres

Motivation

Human psychology posits that everything we do is motivated by our drive to avoid pain or gain pleasure. The things we associate with pain or pleasure vary from person to person and our perceptions may change dramatically over our lifetimes. It is also possible for pain and pleasure to exist simultaneously; our actions and behaviours will be determined by our drive and whether the potential for pleasure outweighs the risk of pain.

This concept can be applied to sport and training as well. There are several types of motivation which may drive an athlete to improve performance and work towards goals.

Positive and Negative

Positive motivation refers to the pleasure or reward an athlete receives when completing a task, goal or event. Most athletes experience this feeling of pleasure when they complete a task, goal or event, or when they receive a reward. These positive memories then motivate them to repeat the conditions so they can experience the same feelings and reward again. The level of motivation will be influenced by the strength of the positive feeling and the nature of the reward.

Negative motivation describes the pain or negative consequences an athlete experiences when they fail to complete an event or task correctly or unable to achieve their goals. Most athletes will be familiar with the negative emotions and/or consequences which result from failure and will strive to avoid the pain by performing well and meeting their objectives. The level of motivation is once again effected by the intensity of the pain or the severity of the consequences of failure.

However, these kinds of negative feelings can also place excessive pressure on the athlete to succeed, leading to burnout. Athletes can lose their passion for their sport or increase their risk of injury by overtraining, potentially shortening their potential career. Therefore, is not advisable to use negative motivation as a tool to push an athlete to perform well.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Intrinsic motivation comes from within. The levels and intensity of intrinsic motivation will vary between athletes. Furthermore, the level of intrinsic motivation for one athlete can fluctuate during different stages of the season or their career.

Intrinsic motivation may be inspired by positive feelings, like enjoying success or learning a new skill, or negative consequences, like the drive to avoid failure. Athletes who have or develop a high level of intrinsic motivation often enjoy a longer and more successful careers as they are able generate motivation within themselves. Their sense of achievement and drive to succeed is not dependent on external factors like other people or outside reinforcement.

Extrinsic motivation is generated by external elements in the athlete’s life, for example, coaches, family, teammates or supporters. Extrinsic motivation can also take positive and negative forms. For example, teammates may provide positive motivation by celebrating with the athlete when they score a goal. An example of negative motivation would be a coach punishing an athlete by withdrawing privileges if they fail to complete a 100m swim within an allotted time frame.

Extrinsic motivation can be powerful as it makes the athlete feel accountable for their actions and performance. However, if too much extrinsic motivation is placed on the athlete, they may feel pressured, leading to increased levels of stress or burnout. Extrinsic motivations, like fame, money, sponsorships are finite and may fade negatively impacting an athletes desire to continue training or delivering perform optimally.

Anxiety and Arousal

Trait and State Anxiety: Anxiety is regarded as a negative emotional state, and is often the result of perceiving a situation as threatening.

State Anxiety

A state of anxiety occurs when we experience tension which relates to a particular event or moment. The intensity of the anxiety will be affected by the importance or significance of the event.

Trait Anxiety

Some people a personal disposition toward anxiety and are more likely to perceive situations as threatening. This type of anxiety often arises in competitive situations.

Sources of Stress

Stress occurs when there is an imbalance between an expectation and the perceived ability to meet that expectation. Stress arises from an imbalance between these two factors.

There many types of stress, for example:

– Fear of injury

– Financial concerns

– Crowds

– Expectations

– Preparation

– Contract concerns

– Selection concerns

Optimal Arousal

Arousal is an emotional and physical response which relates to a particular event or moment. This positive feeling can energise the athlete, significantly increasing their drive to succeed. Not every sport or athlete will have the same arousal level. For example, archers often need serenity and quiet while weightlifters prefer a charged atmosphere with an active audience.

Concentration

The ability of an athlete to keep on task during competition is attention, focus or concentration. This involves focusing attention on relevant environmental cues, and maintaining that attention. View this clip which demonstrates the pressure goal kickers can face when they are not only are kicking to win the game but also have thousands of spectators trying to disrupt their concentration. Absolute focus!

By improving the ability to focus on relevant cues (coach – ‘keep your eyes in the ball’) and to ignore irrelevant ones (spectator – ‘you catch like a baby’) the individual will be able to improve their performance. Attention involves taking control of the mind and, with clarity, focusing on what is important.

The type of concentration required varies with the type of activity. It could be:

• intense concentration is required in activities such as gymnastics, diving and batting in cricket

• intervals of high concentration interspersed with periods of intense concentration predominate in most team games such as oz tag, netball and softball

• at the extreme is sustained concentration as might be required in triathlons, marathon running and high level tennis matches, such as the world-breaking longest Wimbledon match where the score went to 70-68 in the fifth set tie breaker.

Mental Rehearsal

Mental rehearsal, sometimes called visualisation or mental imagery, has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the acquisition and building of motor skills. It involves the mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the mind’s familiarity with the desired motion. It relies on the power of imagery – that is, seeing clearly in the mind what is required of the body in the movement. It involves recalling and then reliving the execution of a skill or a performance. In this process there is no physical movement.

A key feature of mental rehearsal is that it can replicate the feelings of anxiety the individual will experience during performance while allowing an individual to visualise success. Mental rehearsal also allows the brain to work out problems and propose alternative solutions and decisions. It works by improving the neural connections between the brain and the muscles to create the movement.

Internal imagery: this refers to imagining the execution of a skill from your own vantage point. It is as if you had a camera on your head – you see and feel only what you would if you actually executed the particular skill. External imagery: this refers to seeing yourself from outside, as though watching yourself on videotape. The basics of imagery training, either internal or external, are that the athlete needs to be able to both create a vividness of the image and to control and manipulate the image so that it does what he/she wants it to. This is a skill and takes practice to become fully effective.

Relaxation

Relaxation techniques are often used by sports performers to calm themselves which decreases anxiety and controls arousal. Relaxation can be useful before, during or after an event. As with mental rehearsal, visualisation and imagery, it must be practised so that it becomes a natural response and it is important that each athlete finds the relaxation technique that suits them personally.

Relaxation techniques usually have one or more of the following characteristics:

• procedures for tensing and then relaxing muscles

• a focus on breathing

• a focus on heaviness and warmth

• mental imagery.

Techniques – meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, breathing techniques, imagery, autogenic training, hypnosis and biofeedback. Watch the clips below.
https://youtu.be/Tu-qZugHXfc https://youtu.be/HFwCKKa--18 https://youtu.be/7wFX9Wn70eM https://youtu.be/1iRd45dirYk

Goal Setting

Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards. They can relate to either performance or behaviour. The establishment of goals is important to improve both individual and team preparation and if collectively owned – by individuals, team, coach, and parents – will be more likely to obtain greater returns. By empowering athletes with the responsibility to set their own goals, they are more likely to seriously attempt to fulfil them.

Goals provide focus and motivation, give direction, and help people to realise their aspirations and produce better results. Not only can goals redirect an athlete who is unable to see the end result of training, but they can provide the essential formula for success.

Goals may be short or long term, and behaviour or performance oriented. Short-term goals play an important role as they serve as checkmarks by which other goals can be measured. Using the example of a long distance runner, a short-term goal may be to complete three endurance sessions for the first month of training. A long-term goal may be to run a 14km fun-run such as the City to Surf in Sydney. A behavioural goal may be to get up early and train before work/school. A performance goal may be to finish the City to Surf in less than 90 minutes.

1. What are the benefits of setting goals?

2. How do you set goals effectively?

3. How does success or failure affect future goal setting?

4. Outline goals for a given sport i.e. short-term, long-term, behaviour and performance. Make sure that they are SMARTER.

Nutritional Considerations

Learning about nutritional considerations and how to compare the dietary requirements of athletes in different sports with a variety of pre-, during and post-performance needs, is an integral part of training.

In this section, information is provided about the nutritional requirements relating to:

– pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading

– during performance

– post-performance

Nutritional Considerations

Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading:

Pre-performance and carbohydrate loading are strategies conducted by athletes prior to competition to ensure their energy stores reach optimum levels during competition.

Carbohydrate loading involves the moderation of exercise levels and the consumption of carbohydrates with the aim of maximising muscle glycogen stores (carbohydrates = glycogen) before endurance events.

Carbohydrate loading can increase athlete performance by a minimal amount (2-3%) over the course of an endurance event like a marathon. While this may seem like a small positive effect on performance, for professional athletes, this could mean the difference between a gold medal or a bronze at the Olympics.

There are two types of carbohydrate loading. The first is the ‘old school’ or traditional method which relies on around 7-10 days of high intensity exercise with a low consumption of carbohydrates. This initial stage is known as the depletion phase. This phase depletes the body of its glycogen stores. After 7-10 days, move on to the saturation phase, which consists of 3-4 days of decreased training and increased intake of carbohydrates. The aim is to trick the body into overloading the body’s cells with glycogen as a survival mechanism. If this process is timed correctly, the athlete will have increased glycogen and, therefore, energy available at the time of competition, potentially creating a performance advantage.

Tapering is another form of carbohydrate loading, which involves the reduction of exercise intensity 2-4 days out from competition and beginning a diet intake of around 80% carbohydrates to increase glycogen stores.

Carbohydrate loading is not beneficial to the general population who typically have low levels of training, which is an essential prerequisite for the increased storage of glycogen. Carbohydrate loading will also fail if the amount of carbohydrates consumed by an individual is too low during the saturation or tapering stage.

Endurance athletes can also benefit from consuming carbohydrates or foods that are low on the Glycaemic Index (GI) prior to a performance. These foods release energy over a longer period of time and can help replenish depleted stores for athletes during an endurance event. High GI foods are suited to athletes who need an immediate boost to their energy levels.

During Performance:

An individual’s nutritional needs during performance will depend on the type of event or climate they are participating in. For example, an endurance athlete’s energy and fluid levels can be negatively impacted if they are competing in hot and humid conditions.

There are a variety of nutritional considerations which must be taken into account during a performance.

Hydration

A simple rule to follow to ensure adequate hydration is to drink fluids before, during and after physical activity. A serious indicator low hydration is a feeling of thirst. Usually, by the time an athlete experiences thirst it’s too late to maintain adequate hydration.

Another rule is to ensure the athlete has a drink every 15 to 20 minutes, consuming a suitable amount of liquid each time, usually around 250ml, although this may vary depending on the type of sport they play.

Both of these simple methods are used to prevent a fluid deficit so that the amount of sweat lost is not more than the amount of fluid consumed. The table below from the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) compares a range of sports and athlete sweat rates per hour during competition and training.

For example, a female soccer player playing 60 minutes of a 90-minute match would need to consume 800 millilitres of water or sports drink. Comparatively, a female competing in a 10km run would need to consume 1.49 litres of water or sports drink over the space of an hour.

Sports drinks, high in electrolytes, the ideal fluid for endurance athletes as they hydrate and replenish minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, which are needed to ensure optimum body function during physical activity.

Glycogen levels and replenishment:

Carbohydrates are the body’s primary source of energy. Before glycogen stores are utilised for energy, carbohydrates which have been broken down into glucose are used. Fat stores may also be used before glycogen stores, depending on the duration and intensity of exercise (known as glycogen sparing). Glycogen replenishment is only required if the athlete is planning on participating in physical activity for more than a duration of 60 minutes.

How can athletes maintain glycogen stores?

Carbohydrate rich sports drinks, energy gels, lollies, sports bars and fruit are the most popular options for athletes who wish to have a quick boost of glucose or replenish glycogen stores. These are best managed in frequent intervals and consumed in small amounts throughout the performance. The target amount of carbohydrate which should be consumed every hour is around 45 grams. This equates to roughly 1 cup of cooked pasta or 1 cup of cooked rice.

Sports drinks are a very popular source of energy for endurance athletes as they not only provide energy but also hydrate. Sports drinks also have increased electrolytes and minerals, particularly sodium, which facilitate the absorption of carbohydrates and water. Sport drinks also help potassium absorption which improve muscle fibre contractions. Added sodium can help to reduce fluid loss and prevent dehydration during competition.

Keep in mind that sports drinks may not be able to completely satisfy the carbohydrate requirements of an athlete for the entire duration of their event.

Post Performance:

The main challenge of post-performance nutrition is returning the body back to its pre-performance state. Proactive recovery strategies aim to restore glycogen stores in the muscles and liver, while also replenishing the fluids and electrolytes lost through sweating and respiration as quickly as possible. The most effective way to replenish glycogen stores us to consume foods and fluids which are high in carbohydrates (CHO) and are, ideally, high on the glycaemic index (GI).

According to the AIS, the consumption of 1g CHO per 1kg of BM should occur every 2 hours for at least 10-12 hours after competition. In some cases, it can take 24 hours for glycogen levels to fully resynthesise. This recovery method is useful for those who are required to compete or train again the next day and is particularly suited to endurance athletes who have severely depleted their glycogen stores during competition.

Rehydration is equally important. Simple strategies, such as a weigh-in before and after performance, can effectively measure the amount of fluids lost during physical activity. If an athlete loses 0.5kg post performance, they will need to drink 1.5 times that amount; 0.75 litres of fluid. Electrolyte based fluids are particularly effective thy restore pre performance levels, of hydration and sodium.

Depending on the sport and the type of muscular activity performed, athletes may need to consume proteins to facilitate muscle tissue repair and general recovery.

Supplementation

To understand how nutrition and recover strategies affect performance it is important to learn and supplementation and critically analyse the evidence for and against utilising supplementation for improved performance.

There are opinions and evidence which both support and dismiss the benefits of using supplementation to improve performance. While supplementation methods prove effective for some individuals, other athletes receive sufficient amounts of vitamins, minerals and proteins from their existing diet

In some cases, supplementation may simply have a placebo effect on an athlete’s confidence during performance. However, supplementation is still widely supported as an effective way to improve performance.

Vitamins/Minerals

Vitamins and minerals can be found in food and are not a source of energy. Instead they help create chemical reactions which facilitate various body functions including metabolism regulation, the conversion of food into usable sources of energy. There is evidence to suggest that the consumption of vitamins and minerals can even decrease stress and anxiety.

While vitamin supplementation is becoming more popular amongst athletes, many of the vitamins in supplements are already present in their diet. Excess vitamins simply pass through the body and are wasted. For this reason, the case for multivitamin consumption can lack justification and may not be worth the expense. On a more serious note, vitamins A, E, D and K are poisonous if consumed in large quantities, so excessive consumption can have a detrimental effect on the body.

There are occasions where vitamin and mineral supplementation is required for athletes who have a well-balanced diet. For example, female athletes who are training at high levels or are menstruating may need iron supplements to help prevent anaemia. Iron supplementation can have a positive impact on the performance of female athletes due to the essential role iron plays in the production of haemoglobin. This protein transports oxygen around the body, by attaching it to red blood cells, which supply muscle cells with oxygen during physical activity. If iron supplements are not consumed, haemoglobin production may be reduced and the athlete’s performance may suffer due to the reduced supply of oxygen to the muscles. Iron supplements may also be necessary for athletes who have a diet high in carbohydrates and low in iron rich proteins.

Minerals are micronutrients found in food and like vitamins they support body function. Calcium, a mineral most people are familiar with, is essential for good bone strength and density. Bone health is particularly important for athletes who participate in weight bearing or high impact sports, which put high amounts of stress on the skeletal structure, like gymnasts or triple jumpers.

Calcium consumption is especially important for the growing bodies of children and adolescents to ensure optimal peak bone mass is achieved in adulthood. The National Health and Medical Research Centre (2005) recommends that individuals aged between 14-18 years old consume 1300 mg of calcium per day; 19-30 year olds are advised to consume 1000 mg of calcium per day.

Older athletes need to consume more calcium to help maintain their bone health and slow down deterioration. Women who are experiencing impaired menstrual function or menopause also require a higher intake of calcium due to the loss calcium from their bones.

Calcium can be found in dairy products (especially plain yogurt), collard greens, and fish with bones, like sardines and salmon.

Protein

Protein is made up of amino acids and is the key building block of body tissue and body tissue repair. Protein is also an energy source, although it is only used on rare occasions when carbohydrate and fat stores are severely diminished or depleted. Unlike carbohydrates and fats, excess protein cannot be stored in the body and simple passes through.

Athletes who rely on strength or resistance before or during their performances, like weight lifters, need to consume extra protein during the initial stage of training. Protein can help them building up muscle mass and recover from intense training sessions where muscle fibre tearing occurs and repair is necessary.

Elite endurance athletes also require extra protein to replenish energy levels and facilitate muscle tissue repair and recovery. According to the AIS, an elite male endurance athlete requires 1.6 kilograms of protein a day. A resistance athlete in the early training stages needs 1.5-1.7 kilograms of protein a day.

Protein can be found in meat, fish, dairy, tofu, beans, lentils and nuts. Protein supplements are also available, although the diets of most athletes would already contain a sufficient amount of protein for training and performance.

Protein powders are an expensive alternative to simply altering your diet to naturally include more protein rich foods. One advantage to using protein powders is that there are many different blends. These sometimes include other nutrients like carbohydrates and creatine and are easier and faster for athletes to consume as they are usually packaged as a shake or bar.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a stimulant and some believe it has positive effects on athletes who rely on quick reflexes due to its ability to enhance reaction speeds and increase mental focus. According to the Journal of Applied Physiology, a study of endurance athletes who consumed small amounts of caffeine before and during an event, in some cases, improved their performance a maximum of 2.2%. Caffeine has also been found to have positive effects on endurance athletes if small amounts (1.5mg/kg) are consumed toward the end of their performance.

Caffeine acts as a carbohydrate blocker or ‘glycogen sparer’, making fats available as energy in the form of free fatty acids, which are used by contracting muscles. This ensures glycogen stores are available for later use, when they are needed most by a tiring athlete. Theoretically, this is why endurance athletes seem to benefit most from caffeine use, rather than athletes who perform for short periods of time like sprinters.

Caffeine has several negative effects. It has diuretic properties which may increase chances of dehydration and can cause restless sleep and muscle tightness.

Caffeine can be found in coffee, tea, cocoa and is an additive in soft drinks like cola.

Creatine Products

Creatine is naturally found in meat and fish, although it has become increasingly popular on the market as a product for athletes and body builders in the form of powders, bars and liquids.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the chemical compound the body uses for energy. When ATP gets used up it becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Creatine products are used to help promote or speed up the resynthesis of ATP. This is because creatine combines with phosphates to make phosphocreatine. The phosphocreatine then attaches to ADP and converts it back into ATP which restores energy levels faster.

Speeding up this process is particularly useful for power athletes, like sprinters, who primarily access the ATP-PC or anaerobic energy systems during their performance or training and only have short periods of recovery time between sprints. Athletes who have a low intake of meat and fish or are vegetarian may have a low creatine intake and benefit from creatine supplements to assist their performance. Creatine also has positive effects on muscle hypertrophy, although this only occurs when used in conjunction with weight training.

The possible negative effects of creatine use impact athletes who do not want to gain weight. Creatine causes water retention in muscle cells which increases body weight by around 2% in the first few days. Excessive of high doses of creatine have also been linked to the overworking of the liver and kidneys, so people who exceed recommended doses should regularly monitor their renal health.

Recovery Strategies

Competition, training and competitive sports place both psychological and physiological stress on the body. Therefore, an athlete needs to employ various techniques to control fatigue and refuel the mind and body quickly.

While resting, the body can heal minor problems, repair damaged muscle tissue, bring fluid levels back to normal and restock fuel stores. By doing this, results attained from training are amplified, which improves athletic performances. Rest periods also decrease the liklihood that athletes will suffer from burn out or over-training.

Physiological Strategies

In order to return the body back to its pre-workout condition, proper nutrition and active recovery exercises must be maintained. These strategies help athletes to prepare for upcoming training and events.

The two main elements of these strategies involve the removal of metabolic by-products (eg. adenosine, carbon dioxide) and the implementation of a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy.

Cool Down

To restore the body to its pre-workout state, athletes should perform gentle recovery exercises which help return the body temperature, metabolism and cardio-respiratory levels to normal. Cool down exercises can also eliminate metabolic waste products, like lactic acid, in the body and decrease the likelihood of delayed onset muscle soreness, cramps and muscle spasms.

A short session of gentle exercises for a period of five to ten minutes is sufficient to ensure this happens. Lunges, walking and jogging are all examples of cool down exercises. Static stretching can help lengthen, realign and relax muscle fibres, ensuring the athletes experience the normal range of motion. Any vigorous or sustained exercise that does not conclude with a cool down increases the likelihood of blood pooling, which can cause dizziness.

Hydration

Hydration, in the form of water and/or sports drinks can replace the carbohydrates, salts and fluids that are lost during a workout. The amount an athlete needs to consume will be determined by three key factors: climate conditions, duration of exercise and exercise intensity.

Hydration repletion must to begin immediately after the workout and should continue for 12 to 24 hours after the exercise is over. It is essential for athletes to replace the fluids lost during exercise and restore the body back to normal temperature. For every 1.5 kilograms of weight loss during exercise, athletes must consume at least 1 litre of fluid. Tests used to check hydration levels before and after an event, include weigh-ins and monitoring urine colour.

Nutrition

To ensure the body absorbs the maximum amount nutrients after exercise food should be consumed within two hours of the workout. Body systems and metabolic processes are heightened and the body’s cells are sensitive to nutrients. Athletes should be mindful of this when preparing their food and be ready to eat something after their workout. Each meal should contain between 50 and 100 grams of carbohydrates as well as 10 to 20 grams of protein.

Stretching

Along with a cool-down sessions, athletes need to include flexibility training to boost their recovery and lessen muscle soreness. Performing dynamic and static stretches ensures the muscles become relaxed, return to their normal length, re-establish full motion range and also helps muscle fibres realign.

Neural Strategies

When a person works out at an intense level, they put a lot of stress on their body’s muscular system as well as their peripheral and central nervous systems. Neural techniques are designed the relax the muscles, decrease the perception of localised muscle fatigue and reduce mental fatigue.

Hydrotherapy

Immersing the body in water can assist in the rest and recovery process. Cold water immersion can decrease the body temperature, reducing swelling and the perception of tiredness and pain. Hot water immersion will increase blood flow and relax the body but should only be used after rehydration has taken place and is there is no soft tissue damage. Contrast water therapy is a mixture of both cold and hot water and shares the benefits of both techniques.

Another advantage of hydrotherapy is that the buoyancy of the water allows muscles float. This can lessen the impact and strain on the body, which results from a game or heavy training session. Gentle exercises can also be performed (similar to cool-downs), like walking in waist-deep water or completing dynamic leg swings.

The main types of hydrotherapy include:

– Hot water immersion (spa baths): used to increase blood flow and increase skin, muscle and core temperature,

– Ice baths: submersion in deep ice water for 5 mins can aids injury recovery by reducing blood flow, alleviating swelling and pain.

– Contrast water therapy: A combination of hot and cold immersion; athletes are immersed for one minute in each type of water, which alters tissue temperature and blood flow, assisting the removal of lactic acid and other wastes from the body and aiding the delivery of fresh blood supplies.

Massage

After a cool down a massage can be benefit the athlete decreasing tension in the soft tissues of the body. A massage can facilitate flexibility and the removal of waste-by products. It can also help by decreasing the recovery time and encouraging mental relaxation. This is extremely important after the body has been through a rigorous event.

The benefits of massage include injury prevention, increased flexibility, decreased tension and soreness of muscles, nerves and joints, relaxation, a greater sense of well-being, increased blood flow (removes lactic acid, enhancing recovery) and the breakdown of scar tissue.

Tissue Damage Strategies

After athletes participate in competition or strenuous activity, they may suffer from an array of tissue damage, ranging from microscopic muscle tears, caused by heavy-resistance training, to minor sprains and bruises. Soft-tissue injuries can also occur.

Cryotherapy

Cryotherapy uses cold or ice to facilitate recovery. This technique may involve compressing ice on the injury site, having an ice massage or immersing the injured body part in cold water. Athletes can also submerge themselves in icy cold water for a maximum of five minutes. Lowering the body temperature reduces the flow of blood to the minor capillaries and blood vessels. When the body warms up, fresh blood will start to flow, getting rid of the waste products and boosting recovery.

This process is extremely effective for athletes who experience a high rate of bruising and minor injuries, like rugby players, or after an intense training session. Many athletes who use cryotherapy experience quicker recovery times after injury.

Psychological Strategies

A great deal of pressure is placed on athletes from external and internal sources, especially for those who compete professionally. It is important for athletes to maintain their emotional and mental health so that they can stay motivated and keep their anxiety levels down.

This can be achieved through the application of a variety of techniques.

Relaxation

The kinds of techniques athletes can use to mentally and emotionally relax or refocus vary significantly. Some athletes prefer internal reflection, while others respond better to external methods, like listening to music. Other athletes may decide to socialise with their coach or teammates, during or after training.

There are some active relaxation skills, which help to control arousal levels, manage anxiety and encourage mental relaxation, which athletes should use. These include:

– Visualisation

– Controlled breathing exercises

– Meditation

Sleep

Sleep facilitates the recovery and restoration or both mind and body. Athletes, just like everyone else, need to maintain healthy sleep routines. The ideal sleep pattern is seven to nine hours a night; anything more or less can have a negative impact on health. If a person is suffering from sleeping problems, they can use an array of relaxation methods and should abstain from food, alcohol, caffeine and exercise during the three hours before they go to bed.

Stages of Skill Acquisition

To understand the different stages of skill acquisition it is necessary to examine the processes involved in learning a new skill, like juggling or throwing with the non-dominant arm.

Stages of Skill Acquisition

There are three stages of skill acquisition which detail the progressive steps an individual must go through before they can perform at an elite level.

Cognitive Stage: The cognitive stage is the beginner’s level of skill acquisition. This stage is appropriately named as the focus is on mental concentration and the thought processed involved in understanding and processing new information, before a new skill can even be attempted. Something as simple as catching a ball must be clearly explained, broken down and demonstrated; simply throwing the ball at an individual and hoping they will catch it is not an effective strategy.

During the cognitive stage, an athlete might also rely on their prior experience, transferring their knowledge of other sports to the process of understanding and learning new skills. People at this stage are likely to perform poorly; they require regular encouragement and feedback to ensure they progress and learn from their mistakes.

At this stage the execution of the skill will be uncoordinated and inconsistent. Individuals may lack confidence and many people find learning a new skill to be very frustrating. It is important that coaches or trainers give regular, positive and constructive feedback when the learner does something correctly. Comments must be as specific as possible to help the learner understand what they have done correctly and where they need to improve.

Cognitive learners cannot self-assess what they are doing wrong and rely on external feedback to correct errors. The aim of a cognitive learner is to execute the skill to a basic level and to have a rough idea of the proper technique. Depending on the complexity, some skills will take longer to learn than others.

Associative Stage: Once an individual can execute a skill to a basic level and understand proper technique, instruction can progress to the associative stage. The main focus here is on refining the skill through repetition and rehearsal. During this process, errors will still occur, although they should not be as significant or as frequent as those in the cognitive stage. With increased practice, errors will become less common. When individuals practice they develop their ability to identify and self-correct errors as they refine their kinaesthetic sense (special awareness of body parts).

When execution of the skill becomes highly successful in a closed environment (where the learner is in full control), coaches and trainers will encourage the learner to perform the skill in an open ended environment. This involves applying the skill within a specific sporting context, like a drill or mock game.

Progressing from a closed setting to an open one can be difficult because instead of being in control, the individual is exposed unpredictable environment and must focus on many more variables, like opposition players, positional play and timing whilst also executing the skill accurately. As the individual becomes more confident and successful, the difficulty of the training drills should increase to further challenge and refine the learner’s ability. However, if a learner struggles in an open skilled environment, they may need to go back down to the cognitive stage again before they can progress further.

Some learners may take weeks, months or years to progress from the associative stage. It is not uncommon for individuals to plateau, due to the high difficulty of the skill or the lack of frequency with which they practice.

Autonomous: The autonomous stage is achieved when the learner has mastered all sub parts of a skill and are able to combine them to perform the whole sequence automatically with precision. This means they are able to perform with full kinaesthetic awareness while also identifying and correcting any errors quickly and independently. They can also easily process and adapt to external feedback.

A person at the autonomous stage can confidently execute a skill whilst focusing on multiple factors at the same time. A rugby player passing the ball in gameplay is a prime example. Not only do they have to receive the ball, they need to also be spatially aware of the location of opposition players trying to tackle them, their own support players and decide who to pass to, while still throwing the ball with accuracy, perfect timing and optimal tactical advantage. This scenario may take place in just 2 to 3 seconds. When a sportsperson can execute a skill effortlessly without stress, they are most likely at the autonomous stage.

While elite athletes at the autonomous stage are able to perform skills automatically, they will still need to practice these skills indirectly. Practice during this stage is usually comprises of a real time game based scenario drill which challenges the individual by forcing them to multi-task. If the drill becomes too easy, the coach or trainer can increase the difficulty by adding more opposition players, speeding up the drill or having the individual to perform the skills in the drill under greater fatigue.

One potential issue for individuals who have reached the autonomous stage is that it can be very difficult to alter their technique if it occurs automatically. This will require the individual to breakdown the technique adjustment and practice it until it once again becomes autonomous. For example, the rule change in professional golf has forced Adam Scott to alter his now banned technique of pressing his long putter against his body for extra support in the putting motion.

Characteristics of the Learner (PEACH)

The rate at which an individual learns the skills required for their sport or activity will depends on a number of factors including personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability. Each individual is unique, so the rate and extent they acquire new skills will vary from person to person.

Personality

Personality influences behaviour and has a significant impact on an athlete’s success within their chosen sport or activity. There are a number of theories relating to personality development and individual traits are shaped by social influences and past experiences. Personality can effect an athlete’s ability to handle high-pressure situations, like taking a penalty kick in soccer.

It can also influence how an athlete chooses their sport and their initial career development. For example, individuals who are unmotivated or are reluctant to try something new are unlikely to participate in a sport or take learning skills seriously. Additionally, an individual who thrives off social interaction may be more suited to a team sport, rather than an individual event.

Examples of favourable traits in an athlete include:

– Eagerness

– Focus

– Motivation

– Self-discipline

– Determination

– Self-assurance

– Positivity and optimism, even when challenged

– Ability to take on constructive criticism and use it to better their performance

It is important for a coach to understand the personality of each athlete they train. Shaping programs to the personality traits of an athlete can help them get the most out of each session and improve their overall performance. For example, in the movie “The Waterboy”, the coach uses Bobby’s suppressed anger to motivate him to attack and tackle with a high success rate. An athlete who is susceptibility to anxiety under high-pressure events, will likely not be chosen by a coach to take one of the five shots at goal during a penalty shoot-out in a grand final.

Heredity

Genetics can also have an impact on an athlete’s learning and sporting success. Genetic traits are inherent, which means that they can serve as both an advantage or disadvantage for athletes, depending on their choice of sport. However, genes do not necessarily dictate whether athlete will succeed. Short basketballers like Slater Martin and Muggsy Bogues have both enjoyed success. Examples of genetic traits include muscle fiber type, height, weight, gender and somatotype.

Muscle Fiber Type

An athlete may have more of a certain muscle fiber type, which may influence their movement requirements and abilities. Individuals with fast twitch muscle fibers can easily meet the demands of explosive movements such as jumping. People with slow twitch muscle fibers may find it easier to compete in endurance events, like marathons. There are also intermediate fibers which can perform slow or fast twitches based on the stimulus applied to them, which may also impact the performance of an athlete.

Gender

Individuals with higher testosterone levels are typically able to develop ore power and strength in their muscles. This is the justification used to categorise sports by gender.

Height and weight

The height and weight of an athlete can create advantages or disadvantages for them, impacting their success. For example, a heavier sumo wrestler has an advantage when competing against and average sized individual.

Somatotype

Somatotype describes the body shape of an individual. Similar to height and weight, it can be an advantage or disadvantage to the athlete. The 3 somatotype classifications are:

– endomorph (rounder): wide hips, narrow shoulders, pear shaped, high percentage of body fat

– ectomorph (taller): narrow hips, narrow shoulders, lanky, low percentage of body fat and muscles

– mesomorph (muscular): narrow hips, broad shoulders, low percentage of body fat, high level of muscles

Confidence

Confidence can result from past successes, regardless of whether it was sport related. It can also be nurtured and developed by external factors, like support from friends and family. Sometimes high levels of confidence can be perceived as “cockiness”. Confidence is an essential requirement for an athlete; the must believe in themselves and their abilities despite the risk of failure. Athletes with high levels of confidence trust that they can overcome any challenges if they apply themselves. This confidence is especially important during the cognitive and associative stages of learning. Furthermore, any constructive feedback they receive is viewed as an opportunity to improve, rather than a criticism of their ability.

Prior Experience

Individuals are capable of transferring past knowledge, experience and skills to the development of new skills. This has positive advantages for athletes; a pass in Rugby Union can also be used in AusTag. However, there are negative implications too. The flick of the wrist in Squash is not does not yield the same benefits when playing Tennis. The rate and extent of transfer may vary between individuals. Prior experience can be beneficial in regards to development of tactical and strategic understanding as well as the ability to take on new skills.

Skills

Some athletic skills are directly transferable. For example, there are numerous similarities between the techniques used to skateboard and snowboard.

Tactics & Strategies

Many sports share similar tactics and strategies, for example, dragging a player out before passing the ball in offense.

Components of Fitness

There are health and skill related components of fitness. If an athlete has a high level of a particular component already and it is heavily required in their new sport, then the rate of success for the athlete is likely to be higher. For example, cardiorespiratory endurance in tennis is tranferrable to soccer.

Ability

Ability determines how quickly an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills. It incorporates a wide range of factors including sense acuity (sharpness), perception, reaction time and intelligence.

An athlete who can move through the stages of skill acquisition quickly is often seen as having a natural ability. There are a number of factors which influence whether the athlete can understand what is meant to occur, approach the skill with this knowledge and execute it correctly. Athletes with high levels of the following attributes will likely enjoy greater rates of success:

– Coordination: ablilty to accurately move and control body parts simultaneously

– Reaction time: ability to react to stimuli quickly and correctly

– Kinaesthetic sense: awareness of body control and position, for example knowing how to position the body when attempting a difficult dive

– Spatial awareness: awareness of the environment relative to the individual, for example, the relative distance of apparatus, gameplay, field/court/area positioning, teammates and opponents

– Tactical awareness: awareness of how the body should respond to contact with apparatus, for example, feeling the ball hit the ‘sweet spot’ when batting in baseball

The Learning Environment

In order for a learning to succeed during the autonomous stage, athletes must consider the atmosphere in which they practice. This environment needs to be comfortable and safe. The necessary equipment must be available and structured properly. There are some other considerations which can also affect the way coaches prepare and execute training sessions.

Nature of the Skill

Skills are characterised by four factors:

Closed vs. Open Skills

Closed skills can be performed in a stable, steady and predictable learning environment. This environment beneficial for learning new skills as there are limited distractions. The athlete does not need to worry about opponents or noise and can familiarise themselves with the skill through practice and repetition.

Open skills can be executed out in a slightly unpredictable and ever-changing environment. Changing weather, unfamiliar terrain or the application of unconventional tactics during a game are factors an athlete must consider. They may need to modify their technique in order to adapt to this instability.

Some sports have clearly delineated environments. Diving is closed but surfing is open. Other sports may require athletes to develop a mixture of both closed and open skills. For example, basketball mid-court play is open while basketball free throw is closed.

A cognitive stage learner will spend their time concentrating on closed skill activities. As they get better at the game, their coach may incorporate more open skills, increasing the difficulty and shifting their environment to a setting which includes themselves and other players or factors.

Fine vs. Gross Motor Skills

Fine motor skills translate to the use of small muscle groups to generate accurate movements. This skill is relevant to activities which require finesse and limited movement. For example, playing darts, catching a ball in cricket, or serving in table tennis.

Gross motor skills utilise the larger muscle groups to generate a less than accurate movement. This skill is particularly useful in team games which require the athlete to run, leap and tackle.

Remember, some sports will require one type of skill or the other, while others demand a mixture of both. In cricket, players perform the general action of spin bowling (gross), while also ensuring the correct placement of their fingers on the ball to create the spin (fine).

Self Paced vs. Externally Paced Skills

Self-paced skills are performed when the athlete chooses or when they are ready. For example, a high jump attempt or bowling in cricket.

Externally-paced skills are beyond the athlete’s control and must be performed in response to outside forces. For example, when hockey goalkeeper makes a save or a batter hits a ball in cricket and baseball.

Discrete vs. Serial vs. Continuous

Discrete skills are those with a clear beginning and ending, like a 100m sprint, football pass or golf shot.

Serial skills are an amalgamation of discrete skills into a contiguous movement, for example, a goal kick in rugby league.

Continuous skills have no set beginning or ending, and are determined by what the athlete sees when moving as well as how and when they decide to respond. These skills are repetitive and may appear ongoing.

Coaches that analyse a sport using these classifications can better prepare the training activities or their athlete, regardless of their skill acquisition level.

The Performance Elements

At a foundational level, developing sporting ability requires the mastery of basic skills like catching or kicking balls. These skills alone will not ensure success because the athlete must boost their ability to use them competitively.

The goal is to ensure the athlete can progress to the autonomous stage. In order for this to occur they must be provided with opportunities to advance and learn other important aspects of the game. The coach is responsible for recognising what those needs are and providing the athlete with the relevant activities and challenges. Open communication is essential, so the athlete knows where to focus their attention and how to execute the skill.

The use of modified games with a targeted focus on development is called game-sense approach. There are several key areas of development coaches should focus on.

Decision-Making

Team athletes possess the ability to know what needs to be done and when to respond. Decisions made are founded on external cues along with a pre-determined game plans.

Athletes can improve their decision making ability by practicing in game like situations consistently, so that the athlete constantly has to make quick decisions, relating to the position of their team mates and opponents. Coaches can use effective questioning, video analysis and problem solving to enhance this process. Incorporating variation and creativity into training sessions can also have a positive effect.

Tactical and Strategic Development

Each game has its own set patterns of play, designed to facilitate success. For instance, a basketball defence take the form of man-on-man or zone. Football players may perform a 5-3-2 pattern or a 4-4-2 pattern.

It is imperative that the cognitive understanding of athletes is developed so they can recognise these patterns and respond appropriately to effectively defend or attack. Early on in their training, players tend to rely upon instinctual movements for success. However, with tactical training, they can get a clearer understanding of the game’s strategic aspects.

Improvement in cognitive development is done by developing scenario-based skills and participating in small-sided games. Advanced skills are cultivated as athletes learn to read the play, develop strategies, create tactical advantage and effectively execute manoeuvrers. The development of these skills will likely take several years of training, game playing and good coaching.

Practice Method

Continuous practice of a variety of methods can lead to vast improvements in the skill set of athletes. Practice and training are important because they nurture the development and understanding of necessary skills, tactics and fitness which are required to be successful. There are several classifications of practice methods.

Massed vs. Distributed Practice: Massed practice involves stages of constant practice, with brief rest intervals. This type of practice is ideal for fun activities which are moderately intense, or for very extremely motivated athletes. Goalkeeping or golf putting are good examples.

Distributed practice consists of short work periods with regular rest periods. This is better suited to skills which are difficult or challenging to repeat and replicated. This type of training is designed for athletes who participate in high-intense activities and may experience low motivation during practice. Examples including tackling on a rugby team or water-skiing.

Whole vs. Part Practice: Whole practice involves the training of a skill in its entirety. This type of practice is beneficial for advanced learners, who need to train and develop skill which can’t be broken down into separate mechanisms and practiced alone. Sailing and archery are good examples.

Part practice involves the isolation of certain mechanisms which are practiced separately before being combined to finish the movement. This is ideal for complicated skills like pole vaulting. It’s also a beneficial training method for novice athletes who are still in the cognitive stage of learning.

Feedback

Feedback consists of constructive commentary and information pertaining to a particular performance or skill. It is an extremely important element in all skill acquisition stages, as it can help athletes to improve their performance. Feedback can have three main effects. It can reinforce the execution of successful skills, correct and change unsuccessful performances and motivate the athlete to persevere with their training.

There are three factors which much be considered when giving feedback.

Feedback Source

Extrinsic feedback: Extrinsic feedback come from an outside source such as a video analysis, coach, or audience.

Intrinsic feedback: Intrinsic feedback consists of information which is obtained internally, by the performer using their senses. As the athlete improves, they should develop an innate ability to know when they’re making mistakes and how to correct them. It’s crucial that athletes possess a refined kinaesthetic sense so they can recognise how a movement should feel when it is performed correctly.

Feedback Timing

Delayed feedback: Delayed feedback is given after a skill has been completed, usually via an external source like the analysis from a coach or video. It can occur immediately after a session or days later.

Concurrent feedback: Concurrent feedback is given as the performance occurs and compliments intrinsic feedback. An athlete may make immediate changes to their movement or adjust their understanding so they can apply the corrections the next time they practice. This feedback is simultaneous with execution and is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism. For example, if feedback is received while balancing in a headstand, information from their brain enables them to maintain composure.

Feedback Type

Knowledge of performance: Knowledge of performance relates to understanding patterns or technique of play and how a particular skill is performed. It’s a skill used by athletes in the autonomous stage of learning, and is generally formed by extrinsic or intrinsic feedback sources. Coaches must be able to competently and expertly analyse performance they can identify and help an athlete correct big or small errors in their execution. In team sports, coaches must be able to recognise plays and identify areas of strength and weakness. More importantly they need to communicate this clearly to team members using effective feedback techniques, whilst also developing new team strategies.

Knowledge of results: Knowledge of results relates to the success, or the outcome, of a skill and is used to evaluate the effectiveness of performance. This technique is more relevant for novice players who are still developing their general motor patterns. For example, providing extrinsic feedback on the distance achieved in a long jump.

Assessment of Skill and Performance

In order to improve their performance, it is imperative that an athlete, pair or team assess their level of skill and performance so they can identify their strengths and weaknesses. A coach can use this information to guide training regimes, targeting weaknesses and reinforcing strengths.

There are several factors to consider when assessing the skill and performance of athletes, including the characteristics or a skilled performer, objective and subjective performance measures, validity and reliability tests as well as personal versus prescribed judging criteria.

Characteristics of a skilled performer (TACCK)

Technique: Technique refers to how a skill is performed. In order for technique to be classified as “skilled”, it must be effective, have high yielding results, look smooth and use bio-mechanic principles, ensuring efficient use of effort and minimal waste of energy.

Anticipation: Anticipation refers to the ability to “read-play” and anticipate future outcomes. A skilled performer can draw on their previous experience to predict what will happen next. For example, in anticipation of a through-ball from their winger in soccer, a striker will start their run into empty space before the pass is made, which means they can intercept the ball without losing momentum.

Confidence: A skilled performer usually has the confidence to perform the required skills and other difficult tasks even under pressure or in the presence of a large crowd.

Consistency: Skilled performers demonstrate consistency; they can perform a skill regularly regardless of the type of environment or pressure of the situation.

Kinaesthetic Sense: A skilled performer is kinaesthetically aware of their body and is able to precisely control and position their movements. A skilled performer can sense the movement and feel when an error has occurred, typically before completing the skill. This feeling develops as a result of experience and muscle memory.

Objective and Subjective Performance Measures

An athlete’s performance must be regularly and effectively measured in order to monitor progress, track improvements and compare performances against other athletes. There are two types of measurement: objective and subjective.

Objective Measurement: Objective measurement uses results and data to assess performance. For example, in discus the winner is determined by the distance of the throw; the athlete who achieves the greatest distance wins. By measuring an athlete’s performance over time, the coach and athlete can track any progress made.

Objective measurements aim to remove human bias from the assessment process.

Ways to measure an athlete’s performance objectively include measuring distance (discus), measuring height (high jump) and using a stopwatch (sprint).

Limiting assessment to objective measurements only may prevent the coach, or athlete, developing a holistic understanding of performance and the potential for improvement. For example, in soccer, a coach may only use a statistic like how many times a player touched the ball. Even though the player may have touched the ball less times than their teammates, they may have played well by creating space when the team had possession and, in defence, forced their opponent to pass the ball back or make an error.

Subjective Measurement: Subjective measurement is based on a person’s opinion or judgement, as opposed to statistics or raw data. Many sports, including diving and boxing, use subjective measurement.

Subjective measurement can be valuable, as it may “fill in the missing gaps” which can result from objective analysis. This type of assessment can also take into account the “degree of difficulty” faced by an athlete. However, there is a risk bias, which can impede the reliability of results. An effective way to minimise bias is to involve multiple judges in the assessment process, preferably using prescribed criteria. An example of a subjective measurement is a coach stating a player has performed the best goal of the year.

Making subjective measurement more objective

Using a prescribed criteria can help coaches, who rely on subjective measurements, make more objective assessments. The ability of prescribed criteria to increase objectivity will depend on the design as well as the experience and impartiality of the judge. Further bias can be minimised by ensuring the criteria is specific and succinct, with minimal room for personal or subjective appraisal, and recruiting a number of judges who are experienced in the sport to fill offer assessment.

Validity and Reliability of tests

A test can be administered to assess a skill or components of fitness. However, it is imperative the tests used are valid and reliable to ensure the results can be genuinely compared to past personal performance, the average or other athletes.

Validity refers to the tests ability to accurately measure the skill or component that it is intended to be measure. For example, if a coach wanted to measure an athlete’s flexibility, a sit and reach test would be valid, whilst the beep test would not.

Reliability refers to the authenticity of the test, that is, whether the test can be replicated over time and remain fair for all participants. This is why most tests outline detailed instructions which are designed to ensure fairness including, the standard environment used, standard measurement used and a step-by-step the method. If the test conducted is different from the instructions set, then the test is considered unreliable.

For example, consider a scenario where a coach splits a team into two groups (attack and defence) and tests their VO2max using the Cooper Test. If the coach conducts the run for each group in different conditions – the Attack Group at night and the Defence Group at midday or Attack Group on a standard 400m track and the Defence Group 400m on hilly terrain – then the results of the test are unreliable.

Personal vs. Prescribed Judging Criteria

A criteria is used when judging the skill or performance of an athlete or team. There are two types of criteria, personal and prescribed.

Personal judging criteria:

Personal judging criteria can be completed by anyone; a coach, family, teammates or even spectators. This type of criteria relies on the perspective, feelings and opinions of the judge and, therefore, is highly subjective in nature. This type of criteria may also incorporate the “judge’s” personal expectations of athlete or team performance.

An example of personal judging criteria is a scenario where an U10s soccer coach chooses the ‘Man of the Match’. The coach will likely have chosen this player because they “worked the hardest”. However, this is based on the perception of the coach and the elements of the game they noticed; it is difficult to focus on all 11 players at the same time. This assessment will also be affected by the opinion of the coach on what constitutes hard work and the behaviours they value, for example, hard tackles over forcing the error by jockeying. Furthermore, they coach may factor in their expectations; they may place higher significance on a typically poor player performing to an average level, than an excellent player demonstrating a consistently high skill level.

Another example of personal criteria is a spectator stating “Michael Jordan is the best basketball player ever”. This assessment is based on their own judgement of what constitutes an effective player, rather than objective data.

Prescribed judging criteria:

Prescribed criteria are a set of criterion outlined by a governing body or third party, which are then supplied to the judge(s). The aim of prescribed criteria is to minimise the subjectivity of the judging process, making it fairer and, therefore, comparable to other performances. The governing body may also note various elements of the criteria that should weighted higher than others, like the degree of difficulty.

However, as mentioned in the Objective measurement and subjective measurement dash point, the design of the criteria is very important, especially in sports like skateboarding where there a different styles adopted by skaters. If the prescribed judging criteria favours one style over another, then the criteria could be deemed as biased and therefore less objective. In cases like these, it is important that judges discuss and clarify their interpretations of the criteria and the performance.

Types of prescribed judging criteria include:

– scoring systems

– checklists

– rating scales on a continuum from low to high

– rubrics, which are like a rating scale but with a description at each interval