Imperialism Era Overview

Credit: Bill of Rights Institute / Public domain

Uncle Sam's growth from toddler to giant of the world stage.

The imperialism era in the United States, spanning from the late 1800s to the early 1900s, was marked by the country's expansionist policies and efforts to acquire overseas territories (land). Motivated by economic goals, military strategy, and a belief in cultural superiority, the U.S. aimed to become a major world power. During this time, the country took control of territories like Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War and increased its influence in Latin America and the Pacific. This period also led to debates about the morality and impact of imperialism, which would shape U.S. foreign policy and global relationships for many years.

Reasons for Expansionism

Economic Reasons

Economically, leaders believed that acquiring new territories would provide access to more resources, markets for American goods, and opportunities for trade.

Military Reasons

Militarily, having naval bases and strategic locations around the world would strengthen the U.S. defense and global influence.

Visual Credit: Columbia’s Easter Bonnet

S.D. Ehrhart, 1901, for Puck Magazine, New York, New York

Social Beliefs

(Manifest Destiny)

The cultural belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that the U.S. was destined to expand and spread its values of democracy and civilization.

Captain Alfred T. Mahan

Captain Alfred T. Mahan was an influential figure during the U.S. expansionist era, k

nown for his ideas about the importance of naval power. In 1890, Mahan published The Influence of Sea Power upon History, a groundbreaking work that argued that strong navies were crucial to national success and global influence. His book emphasized that control of sea trade routes and overseas bases would allow the U.S. to become a dominant world power, inspiring policies of territorial expansion and military buildup. Mahan’s ideas shaped U.S. foreign policy, leading to increased overseas influence and the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Spanish American War

Background Information about Cuba and Spain Relationship

Cuba and Spain were at war in 1898 because Cubans wanted independence from Spanish rule. The Cuban War of Independence began in 1895 and involved violent fighting and guerrilla tactics. Spain's brutal response, including concentration camps that caused suffering, drew criticism and led to U.S. involvement, starting the Spanish-American War.

Key Factors That Drove the U.S. to Enter the Spanish-American War

Yellow Journalism

Yellow journalism is a type of news reporting that emphasizes sensationalism, exaggeration, and sometimes false or misleading information to attract readers and increase newspaper sales. Exaggerated reports of Spanish atrocities against Cuban rebels stirred sympathy among the American public, further pushing the country toward war.

Source of Visual: “Out of the Frying Pan”, Louis Dalrymple, 1898, Puck Magazine

Economic Interest

Economic interests in Cuba and the desire to protect American investments also played a role, as did the push for expansionism and the belief in spreading U.S. influence. Some of the economic interests included U.S. investments in the island's sugar and tobacco industries.

Explosion of the USS Main

The Maine was stationed in Havana Harbor to provide a show of force and ensure the safety of U.S. citizens and business interests on the island. The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, which killed over 260 American sailors, fueled public outrage and was used to justify military action against Spain.

Source of Visual: Destruction of the U.S. Battleship Maine in Havana Harbor, 15 February 1898. Contemporary chromolithograph by Kurz & Allison.

President William McKinley initially sought to resolve the conflict with Spain diplomatically, but after the explosion of the USS Maine and growing public pressure, he asked Congress for a declaration of war, which was granted in April 1898.

📚📚The Spanish-American War had significant effects on the United States, leading to the expansion of its influence and global status. 📚📚

📚The U.S. acquired new territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific, such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

📚The expansion provided direct access to new natural resources and overseas markets, fueling the growth of American commerce.

📚U.S. also adopted a policy where territories closer to the mainland were given more self-government, while those further away were controlled more directly.

📚The territorial gains helped establish the U.S. as a world power, increasing its commercial reach and international influence.

📚Hawaii Annexation

Background Information

The monarchy in Hawaii, ruled by Queen Liliʻuokalani, faced significant challenges from powerful American business interests and local elites who wanted more control over the islands’ economy and politics. In 1893, a group of American business people, led a coup that overthrew the queen and established a provisional government. This group was largely composed of people like Sanford B. Dole, who would later become the first president of the Republic of Hawaii and advocate for annexation (incorporated territory).

📚Effects of Hawaii Annexation for the United States

📚Economic Benefits for the U.S.

After the annexation, the United States gained control of Hawaii’s valuable resources, particularly sugar and pineapple plantations. This helped boost the American economy by ensuring a steady supply of these products, which were in high demand both domestically and internationally.

📚Strategic Military Advantages:

Hawaii's location proved crucial during later military conflicts, especially World War II. The establishment of Pearl Harbor as a major U.S. naval base in Hawaii would play a pivotal role in American military strategy, particularly during the Pacific theater of World War II.

📚Political Changes

The establishment of the Republic of Hawaii in 1894, followed by its annexation (incorporated territory) in 1898, marked the end of Hawaii’s independent monarchy. This change marked the beginning of Hawaii's integration into the U.S. political system and set the stage for its eventual statehood in 1959.

📚Panama Canal📚

📚Construction of the Panama Canal

The Panama Canal by the United States in the early 1900s had a huge impact on global trade.
- One major obstacle of the construction process was the difficult and rugged terrain of the Isthmus of Panama, which required a complex system of locks and a large artificial lake to navigate the high ground.
- Another challenge was controlling deadly diseases like yellow fever and malaria, which affected thousands of workers.
  - To overcome this, the U.S. implemented public health measures, including better sanitation and mosquito control, which drastically improved worker health and helped complete the project.

📚Effects of the Canal

- The canal was officially opened in 1914 and revolutionized trade by reducing travel time between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, making it easier for ships to move between the East Coast of the United States, Western U.S. ports, and Europe.
- President Theodore Roosevelt used his "Big Stick" diplomacy to secure control of the Panama Canal Zone, a strategic move that increased U.S. influence in the region and boosted trade efficiency.
- Western U.S. businesses especially benefited as they could now trade more effectively with the East Coast and Europe, creating a more connected and economically prosperous United States.

U.S. Foreign Policies During the Era of Imperialism

Big Stick Policy

The Big Stick Policy was a foreign policy strategy used by President Theodore Roosevelt.
- It was based on the idea “speak softly and carry a big stick,” meaning the U.S. should try to solve problems through negotiation but be ready to use military force if needed.
- Roosevelt believed the U.S. should use its power to keep stability and protect its interests, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean.
- This policy was shown in the building of the Panama Canal, where the U.S. used military pressure to help Panama gain independence from Colombia and take control of the canal zone.

Monroe Doctrine

A policy proposed in 1823 in which the United States declared it would not permit any colonization or imperialism in the Americas. This doctrine aimed to protect newly independent nations in Latin America from European intervention and established the U.S. as a dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.

Roosevelt Corollary

The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine made by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and prevent European powers from interfering in the region. The corollary was based on Roosevelt’s belief that the U.S. should act as a “policeman” in the Western Hemisphere to protect its interests and prevent disorder. This policy justified U.S. intervention in countries facing economic or political instability.

Source of Visual: The Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University

Dollar Diplomacy

Dollar Diplomacy was a foreign policy strategy used by President William Howard Taft from 1909 to 1913.
- It aimed to expand U.S. influence by using economic power rather than military force.
- The policy encouraged American businesses to invest in Latin America and East Asia, with the idea that economic stability would prevent European intervention and promote U.S. interests.

Open Door Policy

The Open Door Policy was a U.S. foreign policy aimed at ensuring that all countries could trade freely with China and have equal access to its markets.
The policy was intended to prevent any one foreign power from dominating China and to protect American economic interests in the region.
The policy was never formally accepted by the major powers, it played a key role in shaping U.S. relations with China and maintaining open markets for American businesses.

Source of Visual: The Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University

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