Glossary

1.1 Human Identity

Anterior: Situated toward the front of the body

Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal

Directional Terms: Terms used to explain where one body structure is in relation to another

Distal: Situated away from the point of attachment or origin or a central point; located away from the center of the body

Dorsal:Being or located near, on, or toward the back or posterior part of the human body

Identity: The distinguishing character or personality of an individual

Inferior: Situated below and closer to the feet than another and especially another similar part of an upright body especially of a human being

Lateral: Of or relating to the side; especially of a body part

Medial: Lying or extending in the middle; especially of a body part

Posterior: Situated at or toward the hind part of the body

Proximal: Situated next to or near the point of attachment or origin or a central point

Regional Terms: Anatomical terms that refer to specific visible landmarks on the surface of the body

Superficial: Of, relating to, or located near the surface

Superior: Situated toward the head and further away from the feet than another and especially another similar part of an upright body especially of a human being

System: A group of body organs or structures that together perform one or more vital functions

Ventral: Pertaining to the anterior or front side of the body; opposite of dorsal

1.2 Identity: Tissues

Adipose tissue: Connective tissue in which fat is stored and which has the cells distended by droplets of fat

Appendicular Skeleton: Bones of the limbs and limb girdles that are attached to the axial skeleton

Axial Skeleton: The skeleton of the trunk and head

Connective Tissue: Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix

Epithelial Tissue: Sheets of tightly packed cells that line organs and body cavities

Femur: The proximal bone of the hind or lower limb that is the longest and largest bone in the human body, extends from the hip to the knee

Forensic Anthropology: The branch of physical anthropology in which anthropological data, criteria, and techniques are used to determine the sex, age, genetic population, or parentage of skeletal or biological materials in questions of civil or criminal law

Humerus: The longest bone of the upper arm or forelimb extending from the shoulder to the elbow

Pelvis: A basin-shaped structure in the skeleton of many vertebrates that is formed by the pelvic girdle together with the sacrum and often various coccygeal and caudal vertebrae and that in humans is composed of the two hip bones bounding it on each side and in front while the sacrum and coccyx complete it behind

Skull: The skeleton of the head forming a bony case that encloses and protects the brain and chief sense organs and supports the jaws

Tibia: The inner and usually larger of the two bones of the leg between the knee and ankle that articulates above with the femur and below with the talus -- called also shinbone

Tissue: An integrated group of cells with a common structure and function

1.3 Identity: Cells

Agarose:A polysaccharide obtained from seaweed that is used as the supporting medium in gel electrophoresis.

Biometrics: The measurement and analysis of unique physical or behavioral characteristics (as fingerprint or voice patterns) especially as a means of verifying personal identity.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell’s proteins.

Gel electrophoresis: The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.

Restriction enzyme: A degradative enzyme that recognizes specific nucleotide sequences and cuts up DNA.

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs): Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes).

2.1. The Brain

Brain Stem: The part of the brain composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and connecting the spinal cord with the forebrain and cerebrum.

Central nervous system: The part of the nervous system which in vertebrates consists of the brain and spinal cord, to which sensory impulses are transmitted and from which motor impulses pass out, and which supervises and coordinates the activity of the entire nervous system.

Cerebellum: A large dorsally projecting part of the brain concerned especially with the coordination of muscles and the maintenance of bodily equilibrium, situated between the brain stem and the back of the cerebrum and formed in humans of two lateral lobes and a median lobe.

Cerebrum: The dorsal portion, composed of right and left hemispheres, of the vertebrate forebrain; the integrating center for memory, learning, emotions, and other highly complex function of the central nervous system.

Gyrus: A convoluted ridge between anatomical grooves.

Limbic System: A group of subcortical structures (as the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala) of the brain that are concerned especially with emotion and motivation.

Lobe: A division of a body organ (as the brain, lungs, or liver) marked off by a fissure on the surface.

Peripheral nervous system: The part of the nervous system that is outside the central nervous system and comprises the cranial nerves excepting the optic nerve, the spinal nerves, and the autonomic nervous system.

Phrenology: The study of the conformation of the skull based on the belief that it is indicative of mental faculties and character.

Sulcus: A shallow furrow on the surface of the brain separating adjacent gyri.

2.2. Electrical Communication

Action Potential: A momentary reversal in electrical potential across a plasma membrane (as of a nerve cell or muscle fiber) that occurs when a cell has been activated by a stimulus.

Axon: A long nerve cell process that usually conducts impulses away from the cell body.

Dendrite: Any of the usually branching protoplasmic processes that conduct impulses toward the body of a neuron.

Ion: An atom or group of atoms that carries a positive or negative electric charge as a result of having lost or gained one or more electrons.

Myelin sheath: In a neuron, an insulating coat of cell membrane from Schwann cells that is interrupted by nodes of Ranvier.

Neurologist: A physician skilled in the diagnosis and treatment of disease of the nervous system.

Neuron" A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.

Neurotransmitter: A substance (as norepinephrine or acetylcholine) that transmits nerve impulses across a synapse.

Reaction Time: The time elapsing between the beginning of the application of a stimulus and the beginning of an organism's reaction to it.

Reflex: An automatic and often inborn response to a stimulus that involves a nerve impulse passing inward from a receptor to the spinal cord and thence outward to an effector (as a muscle or gland) without reaching the level of consciousness and often without passing to the brain.

Synapse: The place at which a nervous impulse passes from one neuron to another.

2.3. Chemical Communication

Endocrine Gland: A gland (as the thyroid or the pituitary) that produces an endocrine secretion -- called also ductless gland, gland of internal secretion.

Endocrine System: The glands and parts of glands that produce endocrine secretions, help to integrate and control bodily metabolic activity, and include especially the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, islets of Langerhans, ovaries, and testes.

Exocrine Gland: A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.

Gland: A cell, group of cells, or organ of endothelial origin that selectively removes materials from the blood, concentrates or alters them, and secretes them for further use in the body or for elimination from the body.

Glucagon: A protein hormone that is produced especially by the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and that promotes an increase in the sugar content of the blood by increasing the rate of breakdown of glycogen in the liver.

Hormone: Any one of the many circulating chemical signals found in all multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by interacting with target cells.

Hypothalamus: The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.

Insulin: A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver.

Pituitary gland: An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe, which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe, which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.

2.4. Communication with the Outside World

Accommodation: The automatic adjustment of the eye for seeing at different distances affected chiefly by changes in the convexity of the crystalline lens.

Astigmatism: A defect of an optical system (as a lens) causing rays from a point to fail to meet in a focal point resulting in a blurred and imperfect image.

Blind spot: The small circular area in the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye that is devoid of rods and cones and is insensitive to light.

Cone: Any of the conical photosensitive receptor cells of the vertebrate retina that function in color vision.

Cornea: The transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior.

Depth Perception: The ability to judge the distance of objects and the spatial relationship of objects at different distances.

Hyperopia: A condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the retina of the eye and vision is better for distant than for near objects -- called also farsightedness.

Iris: The opaque muscular contractile diaphragm that is suspended in the aqueous humor in front of the lens of the eye, is perforated by the pupil and is continuous peripherally with the ciliary body, has a deeply pigmented posterior surface which excludes the entrance of light except through the pupil and a colored anterior surface which determines the color of the eyes.

Lens: A curved piece of glass or plastic used singly or combined in eyeglasses or an optical instrument (as a microscope) for forming an image by focusing rays of light.

Myopia: A condition in which the visual images come to a focus in front of the retina of the eye because of defects in the refractive media of the eye or of abnormal length of the eyeball resulting especially in defective vision of distant objects -- called also nearsightedness.

Optic nerve: Either of the pair of sensory nerves that comprise the second pair of cranial nerves, arise from the ventral part of the diencephalon, form an optic chiasma before passing to the eye and spreading over the anterior surface of the retina, and conduct visual stimuli to the brain.

Pupil: The opening in the iris, which admits light into the interior of the vertebrate eye; muscles in the iris regulate its size.

Refraction: The deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or a wave of energy in passing obliquely from one medium (as air) into another (as water or glass) in which its velocity is different.

Retina: The sensory membrane that lines most of the large posterior chamber of the vertebrate eye, is composed of several layers including one containing the rods and cones, and functions as the immediate instrument of vision by receiving the image formed by the lens and converting it into chemical and nervous signals which reach the brain by way of the optic nerve.

Rod: Any of the long rod-shaped photosensitive receptors in the retina responsive to faint light.

3.1. Introduction to Power

Homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively stable internal physiological conditions (as body temperature or the pH of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Macromolecule: A very large molecule (as of a protein, nucleic acid, or carbohydrate) built up from smaller chemical structures.

Resource: A natural feature or phenomenon that enhances the quality of human life.

3.2. Food

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in the cell.

Anabolism: Synthetic, energy-requiring reactions whereby small molecules are built up into larger ones.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The rate at which heat is given off by an organism at complete rest.

Body mass index (BMI): A measure of body fat that is the ratio of the weight of the body in kilograms to the square of its height in meters.

Bolus: A soft mass of chewed food.

Calorie: The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie.

Catabolism: Chemical reactions that break down complex organic compounds into simple ones, with the net release of energy.

Catalyst: A substance that enables a chemical reaction to proceed under different conditions (as at a lower temperature) than otherwise possible.

Digestion: The process of making food absorbable by mechanically and enzymatically breaking it down into simpler chemical compounds in the alimentary canal.

Digestive system: The bodily system concerned with the ingestion, digestion, and absorption of food.

Enzyme: A protein serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

Esophagus: A muscular tube that in adult humans is about nine inches (23 centimeters) long and passes from the pharynx down the neck between the trachea and the spinal column and behind the left bronchus where it pierces the diaphragm slightly to the left of the middle line and joins the cardiac end of the stomach.

Gallbladder: A membranous muscular sac in which bile from the liver is stored.

Gastrointestinal tract" The stomach and intestine as a functional unit.

Large intestine: The more terminal division of the vertebrate intestine that is wider and shorter than the small intestine, typically divided into cecum, colon, and rectum, and concerned especially with the resorption of water and the formation of feces.

Liver: The largest internal organ in the vertebrate body; performs diverse functions such as producing bile, preparing nitrogenous wastes for disposal, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood.

Metabolism: The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways.

Monomer: A molecule that can combine with others to form a polymer.

Oral cavity: The part of the mouth behind the gums and teeth that is bounded above by the hard and soft palates and below by the tongue and by the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of the mandible.

Pancreas: A gland with dual functions: The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the endocrine portion secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.

Peristalsis: Successive muscular contractions along the wall of a hollow muscular structure.

Pharynx: An area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross.

Polymer: A large molecule composed of repeating structural units or monomers.

Salivary amylase: A salivary gland enzyme that hydrolyzes starch.

Salivary glands: Exocrine glands associated with the oral cavity. The secretions of salivary glands contain substances to lubricate food, adhere together chewed pieces into a bolus, and begin the process of chemical digestion.

Small intestine: The part of the intestine that lies between the stomach and colon, consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, secretes digestive enzymes, and is the chief site of the absorption of digested nutrients.

Stomach: A saclike expansion of the alimentary canal of a vertebrate communicating anteriorly with the esophagus and posteriorly with the duodenum and being typically a simple often curved sac with an outer serous coat, a strong complex muscular wall that contracts rhythmically, and a mucous lining membrane that contains gastric glands.

Substrate: A substance acted upon by an enzyme.

3.3. Oxygen

Abdominal cavity: The body cavity in mammals that primarily houses parts of the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems. It is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm.

Alveoli: Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs.

Bronchi: Pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs.

Diaphragm: A sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals; active in ventilating the lungs.

Intercostal muscle: Muscle located between the ribs.

Minute Volume: The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort. Minute volume = Tidal Volume x (breaths/minute)

Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation.

Résumé: A brief written account of personal, educational, and professional qualifications and experience, as that prepared by an applicant for a job.

Spirometer: An instrument for measuring the air entering and leaving the lungs.

Thoracic cavity: The body cavity in mammals that houses the lungs and heart. It is surrounded in part by ribs and separated from the lower abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.

Tidal Volume: The volume of air breathed in and out without conscious effort.

Vital Capacity: The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.

3.4. Water

Adrenal glands: Hormone-producing glands located superior to the kidneys; each consists of a medulla and a cortex.

Aldosterone: A mineralcortocoid produced by the adrenal cortex that promotes sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys and potassium excretion in urine.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles.

Excretion: The disposal of nitrogen-containing waste products of metabolism.

Filtration: In the vertebrate kidney, the extraction of water and small solutes, including metabolic wastes, from the blood by the nephrons.

Glomerular Filtration: The first step in urine formation in which substances in blood pass through the filtration membrane and the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron.

Glomerulus: A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.

Kidney: One of a pair of vertebrate organs situated in the body cavity near the spinal column that excrete waste products of metabolism, in humans are bean-shaped organs about 4½ inches (11½ centimeters) long lying behind the peritoneum in a mass of fatty tissue, and consist chiefly of nephrons by which urine is secreted, collected, and discharged into the pelvis of the kidney whence it is conveyed by the ureter to the bladder.

Nephron: The tubular excretory unit of the vertebrate kidney.

Ureter: A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Urethra: A tube that releases urine from the body near the vagina in females or through the penis in males; also serves in males as the exit tube for the reproductive system.

Urinalysis: Chemical analysis of urine.

Urinary bladder: The pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination.

Urinary system: The organs of the urinary tract comprising the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Urine: Waste material that is secreted by the kidney, is rich in end products (as urea, uric acid, and creatinine) of protein metabolism together with salts and pigments, and forms a clear amber and usually slightly acid fluid.

4.1. Joints and Motion

Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body

Adduction: Movement toward the midline off the body

Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage attached to articular bone surfaces

Articulation: The action or manner in which the parts come together at a joint

Ball-and-socket joint: An articulation (as the hip joint) in which the rounded head of one bone fits into a cuplike cavity of the other and admits movement in any direction

Cartilage: A usually translucent somewhat elastic tissue that composes most of the skeleton of vertebrate embryos and except for a small number of structures (as some joints, respiratory passages, and the external ear) is replaced by bone during ossification in the higher vertebrates.

Circumduction: A movement at a synovial joint in which the distal end of the bone moves in a circle while the proximal end remains relatively stable

Dorsiflexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (upper surface)

Extension: An unbending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that increases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint

Flexion: A bending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that decreases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint

Goniometer: An instrument for measuring angles (as of a joint or the skull)

Hinge joint: Joint between bones (as at the elbow or knee) that permits motion in only one plane

Hyaline cartilage: Translucent bluish white cartilage consisting of cells embedded in an apparently homogeneous matrix, present in joints and respiratory passages, and forming most of the fetal skeleton

Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton whether movable or rigidly fixed together with the surrounding and supporting parts (as membranes, tendons, or ligaments)

Ligament: Dense regular connective tissue that attaches bone to bone

Plantar flexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface (sole)

Range of Motion: The range through which a joint can be moved

Rotation: Moving a bone around its own axis, with no other movement

Synovial cavity: The space between the articulating bones of a synovial joint, filled with synovial fluid. Also called a joint cavity.

Synovial fluid: Secretion of synovial membranes that lubricates joints and nourishes articular cartilage

Synovial joint: A fully moveable joint in which the synovial (joint) cavity is present between the two articulating bones

Tendon: A white fibrous cord of dense regular connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone

4.2. Muscles

Actin: A contractile protein that is part of the thin filaments in muscle fibers

Afferent neurons: Nerve cells that carry impulses towards the central nervous system

Cardiac muscle: Striated muscle fibers (cells) that form the wall of the heart; stimulated by the intrinsic conduction system and autonomic motor neurons

Carpal tunnel syndrome: A condition caused by compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel and characterized especially by weakness, pain, and disturbances of sensation in the hand and fingers

Contract: To shorten and thicken

Efferent neurons: Nerve cells that conduct impulses away from the central nervous system

Endomysium: The delicate connective tissue surrounding the individual muscular fibers within the smallest bundles

Epimysium: The external connective-tissue sheath of a muscle

Fascicle: A small bundle or cluster, especially of nerve or muscle fibers

Insertion: The attachment of a muscle tendon to a moveable bone or the end opposite the origin

Muscle: An organ composed of one of the three types of muscular tissue (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth), specialized for contraction to produce voluntary and involuntary movements of parts of the body

Myofibril: A threadlike structure, extending longitudinally through a muscle fiber (cell) consisting mainly of think filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin, troponin, and tropomyosin)

Myosin: The contractile protein that makes up the thick filaments of muscle fibers

Nerve: A cordlike bundle of neuronal axons and/or dendrites and associated connective tissue coursing together outside the central nervous system

Origin: The attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone or the end opposite the insertion

Perimysium: The connective-tissue sheath that surrounds a muscle and forms sheaths for the bundles of muscle fibers

Plexus: Network of interlacing blood vessels or nerves

Rigor mortis: Temporary rigidity of muscles occurring after death

Sarcomere: Any of the repeating structural units of striated muscle fibrils

Skeletal muscle: An organ specialized for contraction, composed of striated muscle fibers (cells), supported by connective tissue, attached to bone by a tendon or aponeurosis, and stimulated by somatic motor neurons

Sliding filament mechanism: The explanation of how thick and thin filaments slide relative to one another during striated muscle contraction to decrease sarcomere length

Smooth muscle: A tissue specialized for contraction, composed of smooth muscle fibers (cells), located in the walls of hollow internal organs, and innervated by the autonomic motor neurons

Striation: Any of the alternate dark and light cross bands of a myofibril of striated muscle

Tropomyosin: A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscular contraction

Troponin: A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction

4.3. Blood Flow

Aorta: The large arterial trunk that carries blood from the heart to be distributed by branch arteries through the body.

Arteriole: Any of the small terminal twigs of an artery that ends in capillaries

Artery: Any of the tubular branching muscular- and elastic-walled vessels that carry blood from the heart through the body.

Arteriosclerosis: A chronic disease characterized by abnormal thickening and hardening of the arterial walls with resulting loss of elasticity

Atherosclerosis: A cardiovascular disease in which growths called plaques develop on the inner walls of the arteries, narrowing their inner diameters.

Atrium: A chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle or ventricles.

Blood pressure: The hydrostatic force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel.

Capillary: Any of the smallest blood vessels connecting arterioles with venules and forming networks throughout the body.

Cardiac muscle: Striated muscle fibers (cells) that form the wall of the heart; stimulated by the intrinsic conduction system and autonomic motor neurons

Cardiac output: The volume of blood ejected from the left side of the heart in one minute.

Circulation: The movement of blood through the vessels of the body that is induced by the pumping action of the heart and serves to distribute nutrients and oxygen to and remove waste products from all parts of the body.

Coronary Artery: Either of two arteries that arise one from the left and one from the right side of the aorta immediately above the semilunar valves and supply the tissues of the heart itself

Heart rate: A measure of cardiac activity usually expressed as number of beats per minute

Peripheral artery disease: A form of peripheral vascular disease in which there is partial or total blockage of an artery, usually one leading to a leg or arm.

Peripheral vascular disease: Vascular disease affecting blood vessels outside of the heart and especially those vessels supplying the extremities.

Pulmonary Circulation: The passage of venous blood from the right atrium of the heart through the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries to the lungs where it is oxygenated and its return via the pulmonary veins to enter the left atrium and participate in the systemic circulation

Pulse: A regularly recurrent wave of distension in arteries that results from the progress through an artery of blood injected into the arterial system at each contraction of the ventricles of the heart.

Smooth muscle: A tissue specialized for contraction, composed of smooth muscle fibers (cells), located in the walls of hollow internal organs, and innervated by the autonomic motor neurons

Stroke volume: The volume of blood pumped from a ventricle of the heart in one beat

Systemic Circulation: The passage of arterial blood from the left atrium of the heart through the left ventricle, the systemic arteries, and the capillaries to the organs and tissues that receive much of its oxygen in exchange for carbon dioxide and the return of the carbon-dioxide carrying blood via the systemic veins to enter the right atrium of the heart and to participate in the pulmonary circulation

Valve: A bodily structure (as the mitral valve) that closes temporarily a passage or orifice or permits movement of fluid in one direction only.

Varicose vein: An abnormal swelling of a superficial vein of the legs.

Vein: Any of the tubular branching vessels that carry blood from the capillaries toward the heart and have thinner walls than the arteries and often valves at intervals to prevent reflux of the blood which flows in a steady stream and is in most cases dark-colored due to the presence of reduced hemoglobin.

Ventricle: A chamber of the heart which receives blood from a corresponding atrium and from which blood is forced into the arteries.

Venule: Any of the minute veins connecting the capillaries with the larger systemic veins

4.4. Energy and Motion – Exercise and Physiology

Aerobic: Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen

Anabolic steroids: Any of a group of usually synthetic hormones that are derivatives of testosterone, are used medically especially to promote tissue growth, and are sometimes abused by athletes to increase the size and strength of their muscles and improve endurance

Anaerobic: Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it

Blood Doping: A technique for temporarily improving athletic performance in which oxygen-carrying red blood cells previously withdrawn from an athlete are injected back just before an event

Cellular respiration: The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel

Creatine phosphate: A compound of creatine and phosphoric acid that is found especially in vertebrate muscle where it is an energy source for muscle contraction

Erythropoietin: A hormonal substance that is formed especially in the kidney and stimulates red blood cell formation

Glycogen: A highly branched polymer of glucose containing thousands of subunits; functions as a compact store of glucose molecules in liver and muscle fibers

Lactic acid: An organic acid present in blood and muscle tissue as a product of the anaerobic metabolism of glucose and glycogen

Muscle Fatigue: Inability of muscle to maintain its strength of contraction or tension; may be related to insufficient oxygen, depletion of glycogen, and/or lactic acid buildup

5.1. Skin

Collagen: An insoluble fibrous protein of vertebrates that is the chief constituent of the fibrils of connective tissue (as in skin and tendons) and of the organic substance of bones.

Connective Tissue: Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.

Dermis: The sensitive vascular inner mesodermic layer of the skin.

Elastin: A protein that is similar to collagen and is the chief constituent of elastic fibers.

Endorphin: A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception .

Epidermis: The outer nonsensitive and nonvascular layer of the skin of a vertebrate that overlies the dermis.

Epithelium: A membranous cellular tissue that covers a free surface or lines a tube or cavity of an animal body and serves especially to enclose and protect the other parts of the body, to produce secretions and excretions, and to function in assimilation.

Exocrine gland: A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.

First-degree burn: A mild burn characterized by heat, pain, and reddening of the burned surface but not exhibiting blistering or charring of tissues.

Keratin: Any of various sulfur-containing fibrous proteins that form the chemical basis of epidermal tissues (as hair and nails) and are typically not digested by enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract.

Melanin: Any of various black, dark brown, reddish brown, or yellow pigments of animal or plant structures (as in skin and hair).

Pain: Basic bodily sensation that is induced by a noxious stimulus, is received by naked nerve endings, is characterized by physical discomfort (as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leads to evasive action.

Sebaceous gland: Any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin.

Second-degree burn: A burn marked by pain, blistering, and superficial destruction of dermis with edema and hyperemia of the tissues beneath the burn.

Third-degree burn: Severe burn characterized by destruction of the skin through the depth of the dermis and possibly into underlying tissues, loss of fluid, and sometimes shock.

5.2. Bones

Bone marrow: A soft highly vascular modified connective tissue that occupies the cavities and cancellous part of most bones and occurs in two forms – yellow and red.

Bone remodeling: The continuous turnover of bone matrix and mineral that involves first, an increase in resorption and osteoclast activity, and later, reactive bone formation by osteoblast activity.

Calcitonin: A polypeptide hormone especially from the thyroid gland that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma.

Callus: A growth of new bone tissue in and around a fractured area, ultimately replaced by mature bone.

Compact bone: Bone tissue that contains few spaces between osteons; forms the external portion of all bones and the bulk of the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.

Diaphysis: The shaft of a long bone.

Epiphysis: The end of a long bone, usually larger in diameter than the shaft.

Fracture: The breaking of hard tissue (as bone).

Osteoblast: A bone-forming cell.

Osteoclast: Any of the large multinucleate cells closely associated with areas of bone resorption (as in a fracture that is healing).

Osteocyte: Cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance.

Parathyroid hormone: A hormone of the parathyroid gland that regulates the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

Spongy (cancellous) bone: Bone tissue that consists of an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae; found inside short, flat, and irregular bones and in the epiphyses of long bone.

5.3. Lymph and Blood Cells

Agglutination: Clumping of microorganisms or blood cells, typically due to an antigen-antibody interaction.

Alleles: Alternate forms of a single gene that control the same inherited trait (such as type A blood) and are located at the same position on homologous chromosomes.

Antibody: An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.

Antigen: A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and elicits and immune response.

B lymphocyte (B cell): A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies, which mediate humoral immunity.

Blood type (group): One of the classes (as A, B, AB, or O) into which individual vertebrates and especially human beings or their blood can be separated on the basis of the presence or absence of specific antigens in the blood.

Immunity: A condition of being able to resist a particular disease especially through preventing development of a pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products.

Lymph: A usually clear fluid that passes from intercellular spaces of body tissue into the lymphatic vessels, is discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, and resembles blood plasma in containing white blood cells and especially lymphocytes but normally few red blood cells and no platelets.

Lymph node: Any of the rounded masses of lymphoid tissue that are surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue, are distributed along the lymphatic vessels, and contain numerous lymphocytes which filter the flow of lymph passing through the node.

Lymphocyte: Any of the colorless weakly motile cells that originate from stem cells and differentiate in lymphoid tissue (as of the thymus or bone marrow), that are the typical cellular elements of lymph, that include the cellular mediators of immunity, and that constitute 20 to 30 percent of the white blood cells of normal human blood.

Macrophage: An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.

Memory cell : A long-lived lymphocyte that carries the antibody or receptor for a specific antigen after a first exposure to the antigen and that remains in a less than mature state until stimulated by a second exposure to the antigen at which time it mounts a more effective immune response than a cell which has not been exposed previously.

Pathogen: A specific causative agent (as a bacterium or virus) of disease.

Pedigree: A diagram of a family tree showing the heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations .

T lymphocyte (T cells): A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the thymus.

6.1. Health and Wellness

Case Study: A detailed analysis of a person or group, especially as a model of medical, psychiatric, psychological, or social phenomena.

Homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively stable internal physiological conditions (as body temperature or the pH of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Identity: The distinguishing character or personality of an individual.

Intervention: Any measure whose purpose is to improve health or alter the course of disease.