Indian Aesthetics

(Bharata: Natyasasthra and Rasa – Anandavardhana: Rasa theory – Abinavagupta: Dhvani theory – the Relation between art and five landscapes (Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neithal and Palai) in Sangam Literature)

A) Bhratha: Natyasastra

1. Introduction

First let us see the concept and theory of Rasa as propounded by Bharata Muni in Natyasastra, treatise on Natya Drama, Music and Dance. It is primarily aimed at offering an exposition of the principles and canons of theatrical presentation to the practitioners of these art forms. Rasa rose to the status of one of the most foundational concepts of Indian art and aesthetic tradition. Bharata Muni appeared in multiple roles – sometimes he prescribes like a seasoned instructor, sometimes he comments like a true visionary and sometimes he elaborates a technique like an experienced performer, while his detailed instructions are benefiting the practitioners of Natya. He taught aesthetic principles.

Rasa is one such principle. When Bharata states – There is no Natya without rasa, he clearly reveals the significance be attached to Rasa. Scholars know it that the Rasa theory is founded on a deep study of our internal stimuli, psychosomatic and behavioural patterns, expressions, gestures, attitudes, postures, bodily movements, language of humans, even colours, costumes, embellishment and music were not left out. Bharata’s entire endeavour was aimed at developing a semantic of emotive communication through which live actors would reproduce this world to live spectators in a living theatre.

Some of the questions we are going to see are as follows:

What is Rasa ?, What constitutes Rasa ?, What is its nature ?, How it is produced ?, How it is related to its constituents ?, Does it happen to everybody ? Besides, we will also be trying to see how and why Aesthetics and Art should move together.

2. Bharata - The Natyasastra

NS is one of the earliest surviving and most comprehensive practical treatise on Natya, primarily addressed to the practitioners. Written in Sanskrit, this encyclopaedic work is quite unique in many respects. In its presentational style and mythological content it appears to be closer to a Purana, in its prescriptive nature and practical approach (more so due to its own title) it effuses the credence of a Sastra.

Above all the text itself refers to a fifth Veda – Natyaveda, created by Brahma by taking words from Rigveda, music from Samaveda, movements and make-up from Yajurveda and emotional acting from Atharvaveda. This Natyaveda was created so that it should be accessible to all the four varnas. On this ground many deem it to be a work based on divine revelation. This work must have been accomplished not earlier than 2nd century B.C. and not later than 3rd century A.D.

Though we call it, yet the researches and scholars largely agree that Bharata Muni could be the author or the compiler of this text. Authorities like Adya Rangacharaya maintains that Bharata may not have been the name of any one individual rather the name could stand for the descendents of a clan or it could be a family name directly associated with the practice and promotion of stagecraft.

3. Bharata - The Term Rasa

This term has a vast range of connotation. At the extreme end of the range of its connotation, Rasa stands for the Absolute (Taittiriya Upanisad, II-7). And at the other extreme it stands for Soma Rasa-a divine intoxicant. In Ayurveda it stood for mercury , in Kamasutra it was used to mean Eros/ love/passion, In Samkhya philosophy Rasa figures when the evolutes of Prakrti are discussed.

Well aware of these diverse meanings Bharata very rightly picked up the concept of Rasa to stand as the very purpose of Natya, the very essence of Natya and the very touchstone of Natya. There is no Natya without Rasa (NS, VI-31). NS defines Rasa as enjoyably tasted. So one could say that for Bharata Rasa meant the essence of the play without which no meaning would proceed and if there is no Rasa no Natya will exist. Bharata may not have explicitly stated in NS but what he meant by the term Rasa could be the state of enjoyment, the aesthetic experience of the spectators.

4. The Rasa Sutra

The rasa sutra is: “Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasa nispattih.”

From the union of vibhavas (Determinant conditions) anubhava (consequents) and vyabhicari bhavas (ancillary emotions), rasa (aesthetic delight) is realized. There are three different elements of natya like vibhavas, anubhava and vyabhicari bhavas conjoin to bring out Rasa.

Besides the mention of three vital components of rasa, Rasa sutra also mentions two more terms ‘Samyoga’ and ‘Rasa-Nispatti’ which Bharata leaves to the wisdom of the practitioner. Bharata did not give the theoretical elaboration for the union of the Rasa sutra. But he did compile one full treatise for the benefit of the practitioners to find out how the three elements i.e., vibhavas, anubhava and vyabhicari bhavas should conjoin to effectuate Rasa.

5. The Key Concepts of Rasa Theory

Rasa theory is built around some very significant key concepts. All these concepts represent vital elements of theatre contributing their own significant inputs to produce a Natya which aims at Rasa for spectators. A thorough understanding of these concepts will help us to understand the Rasa theory better. In what follows we will study some such key concept of Rasa theory.

1. Bhavas – Bhavas are called so because they become or bring into being and help convey the desired meaning. They enable the natya to realize its rasa to ensure that its poetic meaning has been conveyed. Bharata gives a lucid definition of Bhavas: “That which conveys the meaning intended by the poet through words, physical gestures and facial changes is a Bhava.” (NS VII/3).

Broadly speaking Bhavas refer to all the elements like vibhavas, anubhavas, vyabhicari bhavas and sattvika bhavas.

In a broader sense Bhavas mean the originating cause of actualisation and evocation of rasa. Bharata made a clearcut distinction between real life emotions (Bhavas) and emotions depicted in drama (Natyabhavas) Natya being an imitation of life, real Bhavas can have their counterparts as Natyabhavas as well.

2. Vibhavas and Anubhavas – Vibhavas are made of patterns of life and serve as cause or stimuli of emotions.

Vibhavas are elements which produce a desired emotion and determine the nature of consequent representation of emotions. Like manhandling, dragging, insult quarrel or debate and similar factors will act as vibhavas to evoke in us a feeling of wrath (Krodha).

Anubhavas are bhavas which ‘show up’ on characters after some stimuli (vibhavas) has had their impact. They include the bodily movements, attitudes and facial expression by which the feelings are expressed by the artist and made to be ‘felt’. To manifest a feeling of wonder, widely awake eyes, raised eye brows, constant gaze etc. are some of the anubhavas used by actors.

Anubhavas are the outcome of vibhavas and make the spectators aware concerning the dominant emotions, theme of the play. They can be those behavioural patterns which represent the evocation of similar emotions in spectators. To constitute Anubhava is the real skill and art of the performers.

Bharata talks of four types of Abhinayas Angika (Bodily) Vacika (Verbal) a Sattvika (involuntary acting) and Aharya (Back stage inputs). Performers are directly involved with the first three types of Abhinays.

3. Sthayibhava (permanent emotions) – Human life has some fixed emotive patterns, universally present and integral to our life

Etymologically sthayi stands of abiding and continuing and bhava means existent. These innate, enduring, assimilative and dispositional traits of human nature are dormant and when activated they develop into an expressive and distinct emotive pattern which get manifested through some minor transitory states, bodily movements and involuntary actions.

The eight sthayibhavas are - 1. Rati (love), 2. Hasa (laughter), 3. Soka (sorrow),4. Krodha (anger), 5. Utsaha (enthusiasm), 6. Bhaya (fear), 7. Jugupsa (disgust),8. Vismaya (astonishment)

Being universally present the artists use them as objectifying principles to give their art work structural unity by unifying other elements of the work through them. sthayibhavas being subtle, they cannot express themselves, they gets manifested through these vyabhicari bhavas only.

Today, when we categorises plays, stories and even films we refer to the dominant emotions they delineate. For example we talk of a tragic play, a comic story, a romantic poem or a horror film. We must accept that modern art- forms have gone beyond these eight sthayibhavas now.

4. Vyabhicari Bhavas (also called Sancaribhavas) – Besides these limited number of sthayibhavas Bharata talks of 33 transient, ancillary, temporary, fleeting emotions which do not just accompany sthayibhavas but represent, reinforce and re-echo them.

These Bhavas emerge and fade and in the process portray the dominant emotions. Soka for instance could be expressed through some of the following vyabhicari bhavas - indifference, anxiety, delusion, weeping and change of colour. Through the combinations of these bhavas, one evoke the particular sthayibhava. But Bharata cautions actors that he is not formulating absolutely exhaustive and closed set of combinations of these vyabhicari bhavas, rather he accords some good creative freedom to the practitioners of these art forms.

Vyabhicari Bhavas

1. Nirveda (discouragement), 2. Glani (weakness), 3. Sanka (apprehension), 4. Asûya (envy), 5. Mada (intoxication), 6. Srama (weariness), 7. Alasya (indolence), 8. Dainya (depression), 9. Cinta (anxiety), 10. Moha (distraction), 11. Sm?ti (recollection), 12. Dh?ti (contentment), 13. Vr??a (shame), 14.Capalata (inconstancy), 15. Har?a (joy), 16. Avega (agitation),17.Ja?ata (stupor), 18. Garva (arrogance), 19. Vi?ada (despair),20. Autsukya (impatience), 21. Nidra (sleep), 22. Apasmara (epilepsy), 23. Supta (dreaming), 24. Vibodha (awakening), 25. Amar?a (indignation), 26. Avahittha (dissimulation), 27. Ugrata (cruelty), 28. Mati (assurance), 29. Vyadhi (sickness) ,30. Unmada (madness), 31. Marana (death), 32. Trasa (Fright), 33. Vitarka (deliberation).

5. Sattvika Bhavas – Some bhavas which are involuntary responses and manifestations which we employ to communicate our deeply felt emotions in a complex and deep emotional situation are termed as Sattvika Bhavas.

While human beings undergo such states certain unconscious changes driven by hormonal discharges happen to them on which they do not have much conscious control e.g. blushing, tears, perspiration, horripilation. Bharata talks of eight Sattvika Bhavas –

Sattvika Bhavas - 1. Stambha (paralysis), 2. Sveda (perspiration), 3. Romañca (horripilation), 4. Svarabhanga (change in voice), 5. Vepathu (trembling), 6. Vaivarnya (change of colour), 7. Asru (weeping), 8. Pralaya (fainting)

The poet, the performer and the spectators all share these sattvika bhavas. These expressions specially help the performers to achieve objectification while retaining their subjective nuances. Bharata clearly states – “The temperament (sattvika) is accomplished by concentration of the mind. Its nature (which includes) paralysis, perspiration, horripilation, tears, loss of colour and the like cannot be mimicked by an absent minded person”. (NS VII-93) Through these bhavas the performers ensure to convey the immediacy, vibrancy, candidness and subjectivity of the emotions. Bharata instructs actors to undergo a set of rituals to clear the minds from personal and worldly involvements and preoccupations so that the depiction of such emotions is as true to life as possible.

6. Bharata’s Rasa Theory

Bharata declares that Natya is an anukarana (imitation) of life and the entire enterprise of Bharata in NS is aimed at instructing the practitioners to ‘recreate’ or ‘reproduce’ life by putting up a production through their enactment and several other theatrical elements. All this is aimed to create an aesthetically relishable unique experience called Rasa. What is this unique relishable experience called Rasa? Let us see.

Bharata starts the discussion about Rasa by asking a couple of questions: What constitutes Rasa? And what are the Rasas expert speak? Rasa is said so because it is something to be relished. Like various condiment, spices, herbs and other food items are blended and cooked to prepare a delicacy which is ready for a relishable tasting, similarly performers produce rasa out of the union of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicari bhavas.

What comes out after this unifying, creative, assimilative and engaging enterprise is an aesthetical state for the spectators to be relished and known as Rasa. His recipe of allowing a prescribed union of vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicaris to arouse sthayi so well worked out that Rasa has to emerge to enchant the refined spectators.

One can easily make out his Rasa is a state of mind, a state of intense absorption which is emotionally charged and an essentially delightful savouring experience.

Bharata never attempted writing or even working out a formal theory of rasa. It is probably later thinkers, more so his commentators, who were rather amusingly inspired by the ambivalence of some of his concepts that they started looking for a theory of Rasa in an out of out practical treatise.

Actually, it is the sthayibhava which evolves into a rasa. The union of all the three vital ingredients untiedly awaken the sthayibhavas of the involved spectators.

For theoretical interest two problems of this theory are of great interest. i) How the Rasa is Manifested; ii) How the Rasa emerges from the union of the three vital elements of natya (Samyoga) of Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyabhicari Bhavas.

His observations were based on human psychology, modern psychology has so much to speak on these issues today, prompted him to select only those feelings which are more prominent, more dominant, more visible and more live in the world. Hence, he considered only eight sthayibhavas.

Besides these emotional elements he had a lot many theatrical devices like costumes, stage, accessories, music, dance which he integrated into the theatrical rendering. Rasa is realized only when all these elements are set according to the prescribed cannons.

Rasa is that which touches the heart. The entire body feels the rasa like fire consuming a dry stick (NS VIII/7). Rasa is what embodies Natya, Rasa is what the artists strive for and Rasa is a state of consciousness wherein the spectators not only apprehend the import of the artists but also feel its experiential aspects in a blissful state.

7. Kinds of Rasa

Bharata mentioned eight Rasas, four as major rasas and four are subsidiary rasas which come from their corresponding major rasa. Hasa comes from Srngara, Karuna comes from Raudra, Adbhuta comes from Vira and Bhayanak comes from Bhibhatsa. Given below is a brief introductory account of the major rasas.

Srngara Rasa – Srngara (love) is stated as the most important Rasa in NS. Since love is the most dominant feeling in life its representation in theatre, obviously, draws, a lot of attention. Based on the sthayibhava of Rati it is set in beautiful surroundings to delightful music on beautiful location. It is depicted by men and women of healthy youth by raising eyebrows, side glance, graceful steps and so on.

Vira Rasa - Vira Rasa has utsaha (enthusiasm) as its sthayibhava and it is normally associated with noble and brave individuals and their heroic deeds. Its stimuli include, determination, courage, justice, strength, bravers etc., and it is expressed through fearlessness, steadfastness, skilfulness, unrelenting nature. Its vyabhicari bhavas are self confidence, excitement, memory, self consciousness, self command. It could be acted out by throwing challenges, courageous deeds, showing boldness and expressing self confidence.

Raudra - Raudra emerges from the sthayibhava of krodha (anger) which is normally associated with evil persons of violent nature, who cause fights, its stimuli are harsh words, cruelty, spite provocation etc. It is acted through beating, hitting, dragging, bloodshed, inflicting pain and its emoted through red eyes, knitting of eyebrows, puffing up of cheeks etc. Its vyabhicari bhavas include energy, cold-blooded animality, excitement, intolerance, cruelty along with sweating and stammering.

Bibhatsa(fear) – Emerging from the sthayibhava of Jugupsa (disgust) Bibhatsa is stimulated by listening or touching, even tasting, smelling or seeing, undesirable, loathsome, ugly things, in evil settings. It is represented by withdrawing the body, by leering, spiting and showing agitation, holding nose, hanging the head or walking stealthily. Its vyabhicari bhavas includes agitation, lots of memory, excitement, confusion, sickness, death etc.

Key Words

Anubhava : (consequents/sensors) Response of emotions external manifestation, deliberate involuntary through which feelings are represented.

Bhava : (feelings/states/emotions/modes of being) A wider term referring to Vibhavas , Anubhavas , Sthayibhavas, Vyabhicari Bhavas and sattvika Bhavas .

Natya : (drama/play) Composite theatre of drama, dance and music.

Rasa : (flavour/taste/essence/integral/aesthetic experience/ dramatic emotions) NS talks of eight such Rasas, realization of which is the objective of the performers and the experience of which draws spectators to theatre.

Sattvika Bhavas : (Psycho-physiological response/spirited modes) Certain involuntary consequents depicted by highly involved and concentrating actors, like sweating, weeping etc to create realistic effects in theatre.

Sthayibhavas : (permanent mood/dominant emotion/fundamental mental states) NS talks of eight of such dominant emotions which are universally present in all human beings.

Vibhavas : (determinants/indicators/stimuli) The causes (the human and the material) which determine the evocation of desired feelings in the audience.

Vyabhicari Bhavas : (transitory/complimentary/ancillary/states of emotions/inconstant modes)

B) Abhinavagupta’s Contribution

1. Introduction

Abhinavagupta wrote commentaries on Bharata’s Natya Sastra. Those commentaries are: Abinava bharati and Natyaveda Vivrti. In these works, he gives philosophical dimension to rasa theory. For him, rasa means that spectator can have the state of bliss which is similar to the state of liberation. He says that dramas are for super-worldly happiness – happiness of Brahma-realization. It provides Ananda. Since art provides delight, it is related to heart rather than mind. So, he disagrees with Bharata’s idea of siddhi (accomplishment, attainment theory) which arise in the mind. Rasa is the soul of drama; therefore, it is subjective as found in Bharata. Drama is the means for diverting the mind from worries or troubles in life.

Aesthetic senses are only eyes and ears. Rasa is not only the taste but also the tasted (art works). Drama presents everything that is connected with life and from which spectator derives delight. The purpose of drama is to help ordinary people reach a state of spiritual bliss. He improved the rasa sutra of Bharata.

He presents the origin of rasa as the transformation of stayibhava. The role of Shakti is the generation of rasa is important. Kashmir Shaivism holds that joy is considered as essential nature of spirit and therefore, Shakti would play a vital role in the generation of rasa.

Bharata says that rasa is both mental and non-mental, whereas for Abhinavagupta it is only mental state. These mental states can be suggested through various manifestations (different art works) which are created by the combination of vibhavas, anubhavas, and vyabhacaribhavas.

2. Four Major Theories of Rasa

a) The theory of generation (utpatti); b) The theory of inference (anumitti); c) The theory of enjoyment (bhukti); d) The theory of revelation (abhivyakti)

Abhinavagupta has made two commentaries on Bharata’s Natyasastra in the name of Abhinava-bharati and natya-veda-vivrti. In these commentaries he has given an extensive treatment of the first three theories of rasa and undoubtedly his own theory also.

a) The theory of generation (utpatti)

This theory was propounded by an aesthetician known as Bhatta-Lollata. This theory says that rasa originates from the generation of permanent emotion in the original character pertaining to nature and human elements in collaboration with physical expression and transitory emotions. The spectator secondarily is made to recognize the emotion expressed in the original character.

The theory says that only the original character can cause the rasa. If that is the case, then the enjoyment will be of particular and personal in nature. But aesthetic enjoyment leading to rasa experience should be universal and impersonal in nature. Further there is no reference to the sthayibhava of the spectator in the Bhatta-Lottata’s theory of generation. The spectator cannot whole heartedly enjoy the emotion exhibited through the original character.

b) The Inference Theory of Rasa (rasanumiti vada)

The spectator infers the presence of the emotion through the actor presented in the form of bhavas like human or nature. The role played by the actor is the cause for leading to rasa. The audience infers the presence of such emotion not in the actor himself but through the bhavas presented by him.

But inference is concerned with intellect and logic pertaining to language. Therefore, it is not applicable to art experience. We cannot generalize emotion so as to infer emotion. The actors only present the emotion. The method of communication is indirect and audience experience emotions indirectly.

c) The Enjoyment Theory of Rasa (rasa-bhuktivada)

This theory has been promulgated by Bhatta-nayaka, according to whom rasa is enjoyed by the spectator as pure joy with self-forgetful nature through the general character of the sthayibhava in the actual play or poem.

This theory envisages that rasa or aesthetic enjoyment is possible only when the spectator or the reader keeps his mind calm and quiet without any practical interest. A mood of composure is essentially required and the situation must be idealized so that idealized emotion is shown through the actors.

As far as the method of communication is concerned, Bhatta-nayaka has discovered a unique concept known bhava-katva, a special power in language that enables the reader or spectator to discover the presented emotion leading to delightful experience. This special power of language transcends space and time and produces idealized conditions of the emotions by exposing the circumstances as well as physical expressions.

The existence of bhavakatva is debatable. It can be applicable to the generalized situation but not to generalized emotion, because of the assumed argument that that says that we cannot generalize emotions. Even if the existence of Bhavakatva is admitted, this concept will be applicable only to the art pertaining to language and literature.

Some aestheticians deny that the spectators also will experience the same stayibhava as the actor does or performs.

The sattva nature of buddhi plays a role in producing aesthetic enjoyment known as bhogakrtva which means, ‘the power to create enjoyment.’ For Bhatta-Nayaka himself was samkhya philosopher and he believes in duality. He says that bhudhi is predominant in Purusha in associating with Prakrti to produce pleasure and pain.

d) The Revelation Theory of Rasa

This theory has been developed by the chief exponent of Indian aesthetics, Abhinavagupta. According to this theory, rasa is manifested or revealed the moment all defilements of the self are annihilated and the blissful state of existence is achieved which is latent in the self and not brought from outside.

Sthayibhava is the one which is presented as the theme of the artistic creation in a general and idealised form. With reference to the nature of rasa, he argues that there is an identity between the basic emotion of the artists and the fertile imagination of the appreciator. The artist suggests the emotion and the appreciator realizes, apprehends and enjoys the same through his powerful imagination.

Thus the manifestation of rasa is due to the total response from the qualified appreciator. The vibhavas, anubhavas and the vyabhicharibhavas that are shown in the stage through the characters of the actors become ideal in essence and he establishes an inseparable relation with the character affected by an emotion ideologically. Subsequently the spectator develops a kind of delightful emotional experience, which is not personal but impersonal marked by generalization. As the spectator is freed from his ego, he is free to appreciate the emotional presentation.

C) The Theory of Dhvani

The method of communication in general and of rasa in particular is dhvani or suggestion. The concept of vyangyartha, or dhvani, is an original contribution to Indian thought by the Alankarika. The term dhvani is used in more than one sense in this context. We take only two contexts: the first is the context of language and the second, of course, is our context, Aesthetics. Even in Aesthetics, the term dhvani is used in different senses. Interpreters borrowed this term from grammarians for the reason that it can be used in more than one sense.

In language especially in grammar the term dhvani is used in Sphota theory. The term Sphota in the verb form means ‘to burst,’ ‘to open with sound,’ ‘explode,’ ‘split,’ ‘blossom,’ ‘disclose,’ etc. In the noun form, it can mean the process of bursting, opening, expansion and disclose etc. Sphota can be defined as “the eternal and imperishable elements of sounds and words,” and “real vehicle of the idea which burst or flashes on the mind when a sound is uttered.”

A word has two aspects; Sphota and dhvani. They are related as follows; Sphota represents what is called Sabdha proper; whereas sound is only a quality serving to manifest the Sphota. So Sphota means “that from which meaning bursts forth” or “that which is revealed by sound” or “that which is made manifest” or “that which is manifested by letter or sound.”

The word, dhvani (sound) is derived from the root dhvan (to make sound). Dhvani is an older term dating back to Atharva-Veda, where it was used in the sense of sound, tune, noise, and so on. A word has the composition of two ultimate elements: sound and meaning. The analysis of the relation between these two was the main endeavor of ancient Indian philosophers. Grammarians treat dhvani as sound, whereas aestheticians assert that dhvani refers to letters which are suggestive of meaning or sense. So dhvani as sound has two functions: a) as cause of Sphota in language, b) as the reason of manifestation of the hidden meaning,

According to Abhinavagupta, in poetics dhvani plays the transcendental function of suggestion which actually leads to the discovery of hidden meaning of the poetry. Anandhavardhana suggests that dhvani type of poetry considers the conventional meaning as secondary and suggest the implied meaning to the reader. The implied meaning is the suggested meaning other than the two basic meanings: primary meaning or explicit meaning which is the literary meaning of the word, and secondary meaning which is denotative meaning. Each of these together and even independently suggests third type of meaning which is called the suggested meaning. Dhvani is the semantic theory, that is, a theory which speaks about the meaning of the word and Rasa is the affective theory which speaks about the aesthetic enjoyment of art works including the poetry.

That which is demanded of the readers of the poetry is the capacity to know the potency of words and word-structure, because it is words which have the potency for suggested meaning. Why we talk about dhvani here is because poetry is constituted of emotive language and emotive meaning of the poetry cannot be revealed by the first two meanings. We have to go for dhvani in order to understand the hidden emotive meaning.

Language in general has the power to convey a meaning by suggesting or indicating. The meaning suggested by the words is called dhvani (Vyangyartha). It is different from and beyond the meaning explicitly and directly conveyed by words (Vacyartha) and the secondary meaning which is denotative meaning (Laksyartha). So what we understand so far is that the content of the poem is emotion (bhava) and method we use to make manifest is dhvani which is necessarily consists in Vyangyartha.

Dhvani is the core of poetics, Atman and the expression, consisting of words (Subdha) and explicit meaning (Vacyartha) constitute only the seat of dhvani, its embodiment, its Sarira. The concept of dhvani arose from the demand to explain how the emotional content of poem is transmitted to a reader to produce rasa.

The concept, dhvani belongs to Anandhavardhana who lived in 9^th century. Dhvani is the method of communicating emotional content of the poem to the reader. Primary meaning does not stand for emotion because it only stands for situation consisting causes and effects of the emotion which are partly human and partly natural. It is by the description of the situation that the reader catches the underlying emotion.

On reading the poem, one understands in the first place its primary meaning which represents the situation. The primary suggests or indicates to the mind of the reader the presence of the emotion.

Thus, the meaning representing the emotion called Vyangyartha or suggested meaning is arrived at indirectly form the words through the medium of primary meaning. The power of language by which Vyangyartha is said to be conveyed is called Vyanjana-Vritti. Vyangyartha is called Dhvani.

This Vyangyartha (being indirectly conveyed) may resemble the secondary meaning of words, because the secondary meaning is also indirectly conveyed. The secondary meaning is what implied by the word that which stated. But the suggested meaning and even the secondary meaning are arrived at through primary meaning. The primary meaning lead either to secondary meaning or to suggested meaning. For both the meanings the common ground is primary meaning.

But there is fundamental difference between these two. The secondary is fundamentally and necessarily connected with primary and operates only in the wake of the primary without going outside the context set by primary meaning. We resort to secondary meaning because the primary meaning does not do justice to the context.

In contrast there is no necessary relation between the primary meaning of the word used and the meaning suggested by it. Normally the suggested meaning relates to the intention of the speaker. For example, let us see the following: “Hamlet on the Ganges.’ “On the Ganges” has to be understood as “on the bank of the Ganges” not as it is given there, “on the Ganges”. The word “Ganges” is the same for both primary and secondary meaning. But, in the expression, “on the Ganges,” there is more meaning than the two meanings. The author probably desires to convey the idea that the “Hamlet is holy and cool.” Primary meaning, “on the Ganges” serves as passage to secondary meaning, “on the bank of the Ganges.” But it serves only as hint or pointer to the suggested. Transition from primary meaning to secondary meaning is continuous, but on the contrary, from primary meaning to suggested meaning discontinuous. A sense is suggested even when the word used has no correspondence to it. Only sympathetic person’s insight can make it out.

Some Insights on the Stages of Dhvani and Varieties

There are three stages of Dhvani

1. That which is suggested – Vyangya: when what is suggested is fact (whether the fact is nature or human affairs), it is called Vastu Dhvani. When a fact that has been idealized and transmitted into an image (alankaras) is suggested, it is called alankaras-dhvani. When a transitory emotion (Vyabhakari Bhava) is suggested, it is called bhava-dhvani. When sthayibhava (permanent emotion) is suggested, it is called rasa-bhava, because sthayibhava culminates in rasa.

2. That which suggests or the means to suggestion: a. indispensable means to suggestion is the primary meaning of words (Vacyartha); b. in some cases secondary meaning also becomes means.

3. The process of suggestion: there are two senses in which the primary sense leads to the suggested sense. A. in some cases the primary sense itself gives rise to the suggested meaning. The process is called Abhidhamula-Dhvani; b. in another case, when the words have secondary meaning, the primary meaning leads to secondary meaning and secondary meaning leads to suggested meaning. In this the immediate means to suggested meaning is laksyartha. The process is called Laksanamula-dhvani.

D) Landscape in Sangam Literature

Sangam literature is an ancient literature in Southern India, especially in Tamil Nadu. The period of these literatures would be around 300 BC to 300 AD. This literature is a collection of ancient poems. The number of the poems is around 2381, composed by 473 poets. These poets are both men and women. Sangam literature deals with emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance and trade.

The available literature from the Sangam period were piled into categories; they are: 1. Patinenmelkanakku – 18 series of major poems (this again is divided into two: Ettuthogai and Patthupaatu) and 2. Ptinenkilkanakku – 18 series of minor ones.

Poems are classified into two main categories: 1. Inner field (Aham) 2. Outer field (Puram). Inner field contains topics of personal and human aspects such as love and intimate relationships metaphysically. The outer field discusses all other aspects of human experience, such as heroism, courage, social life and customs.

Environmental classification: these poems are environmentally classified. It is a thematic classification. For example, the classification ties the emotions involved in Aham poetry to a specific landscape. These landscapes not only symbolize the emotions, but arouse the emotions. These landscapes or Tinais are five: Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neithal and Paalai.

The important aspect here is the categorisation of poems into different tinais or modes, depending on the nature, location, mood and type of relationship represented by the poem. Each tinai was closely associated with a particular landscape, and imagery associated with that landscape - its flowers, trees, wildlife, people, climate and geography - was woven into the poem in such a way as to convey a mood, associated with one aspect of a romantic relationship.

Symbolism

Classical Tamil love poetry assigns the human emotions or emotional experiences to specific some specific habitats (landscapes). The meanings or the emotions of the poems are described using the time (autumn, spring, summer, and winter) the place (five landscapes) and the flowers corresponding to landscapes. These things are symbols which codify the meanings. These codifications imply socio-economic order, occupation and behaviour patterns. Details of secondary inner subjective and outer social elements are also codified - the seasons, the hour, a god, musical instruments and, above all, the sentimental connotations of each landscape: lovers' meetings, patient waiting, lovers' quarrels, separation, and the anxiously awaited return.

Geographical and non-geographical thinais

Under this codification, the inner universe associated with love is divided into seven modes, or thinai, five of which are geographical and associated with specific landscapes, and two of which are non-geographical and not associated with any specific landscape. Four of the geographical landscapes are described as being landscapes that occur naturally in the Tamil lands. These are: kurunji - mountainous regions, associated with union, mullai - forests, associated with waiting, marutam - cropland, associated with quarrelling, and neytal - seashore, associated with pining. The fifth - palai, or desert, associated with separation - is described in the Tolkappiyam as not being a naturally existing landscape.

From these basic associations of landscape and subject, a wide range of specific themes suitable for each landscape were derived. According to the Tamilneri vilakkam, a 9^th century text on poetry, the love themes described by the five thinais constitute “the Tamil way of life” or “the Tamil way of love.”

The two non-geographical modes - kaikkilai and peruntiṇai - were seen as dealing with emotions that were non-conforming, and therefore were not associated with any specific landscape. Kaikkilai, dealt with unreciprocated or one-sided love, while peruntiṇai, dealt with 'improper' love or love against the rules of custom.

Poetic Attributes of the Landscapes (see below for diagram)

The Geographical thinais

In Tamil, each of the five geographical thinais is named for a flower that is characteristic of that landscape. In English translation, however, it is customary to use the name of the landscape rather than that of the flower, largely because the flowers lack the cultural association with a specific language in English that they have in Tamil.

Kurunji – Mountainous Region

The mountain is the scene of the lovers’ union at midnight. It is the cold, dewy season. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are a source of honey. Love in this setting is exemplified by Murugan, and one of his wives, Valli, the daughter of a mountain dweller. He wears the sparkling red kantal flower and rides a peacock, the bird of the mountains.

The name of the region, Kurunji, is also the name of the famous Kurinji flower from the lofty hills of Tamil country. The Kurinji, a shrub whose brilliant white flowers blossom for only a few days once every ten or twelve years, blanketing the slopes in radiant whiteness under the sun. This event of jubilation and purity symbolizes the frenzy of a sudden love shared, in concert with the unleashed forces of nature: the amorous dance of peacocks, their echoing cries, the splash of waterfalls, and the roar of savage beasts. The lovers hold each other tighter still and forget the dangers of the mountain path.

Kurunji (Kuruntokai - 2)

Beautiful-winged bee whose life is passed in search of honey

don’t speak to me of desire but tell me what you really saw:

Could even the flowers that you know be as full of fragrance

as the hair of the womanwith the even set of teeth and the peacock nature,

to whom long affection binds me?

- Irayanār

Mullai – Forests

Mullai is the land of the forest. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are a source of honey. Mullai or Jasmine is the flower of the forests.

The theme of the forest and of shepherds at play, the image of confident waiting for the loved one, produced an original offshoot; for this is the region of Maayon (Ancient Tamil God), and the love theme it represents symbolizes the devotee waiting in the hope that Maayon will eventually come and fill his soul, thus experiencing the joys of expectation.

The sun goes down and the sky reddens, pain grows sharp,

light dwindles. Then is evening when jasmine flowers open, the deluded say.

But evening is the great brightening dawn

when crested cocks crow all through the tall city

and evening is the whole day for those without their lovers.

(Kuruntokai - 234) tr. George L. Hart

Marutham – Cropland

Pictorial representation for geographical thinais named Marutham, which relates to that of a characteristic feature of areas surrounding in and around Cropland’s (or Fields) by classical poetry in Tamil language

The plains were the scene of triangular love plots in which the hero's visits to the courtesan oblige the heroine to counter with a mixed show of coquetry and moodiness, tactics whose limits are described in the Thirukkural (“Sulking is like flavouring with salt; a little suffices, but it is easy to go too far.”). The Marutam tree was the characteristic tree of this region.

Nowhere, not among the warriors at their festival,

nor with the girls dancing close in pairs,

nowhere did I see him.

I am a dancer; - for love of him

these conch-shell bangles slipfrom my wasting hands -

he’s a dancer too.

- Marutham (Kuruntokai - 31)

Neithal – Seashore

The seashore affords many examples of the compelling charm of Sangam poetry and the extraordinary freshness of its realism. From behind the conventional symbolization of waiting there emerges a picture of the life of the fisherfolk; the nets and boats drawn up on the beach, scuttling crabs and cart wheels bogged down in the sand, the odour of drying fish, cut into thick slices, which attracts the birds, beautiful village girls peering through the Pandanus hedges, and the wind blowing through the cracks in the roughly constructed straw huts at night. Water lily is the characteristic flower of the region.

Water lilies bloom in the lagoons

where cranes part the water lilies looking for fish

then fly away to stay in fragrant seaside groves,

near my lover’s village washed by the sea.

His love for me is greater than the sea.

- Neithal (Ainkurunuru - 184)

Palai – Desert

In classical Tamil prosody, the palai or wasteland is not seen as being a naturally occurring ecology. Ilampuranar, in his commentary on the Tolkappiyam, explains that instead, the landscape of the wasteland with which the paalai is associated emerges when other landscapes whither under the heat of the burning sun. Thus this landscape is associated with the theme of separation, which occurs when love is subject to external pressures that drive the lovers apart. Paalai could thus be seen as a mixture of Mullai and Kurunji tracts, rather than as a mere sandy area.

The theme of wasteland and separation occupies half of one of the most famous anthologies, the theme of the mountain being only secondary. Paalai tree is identified as Wrightia.

They will not dig up the earth and enter it,

They will not climb into the sky,

They will not walk across the dark sea.

If we search every country, every city, every village,

can our respective lovers escape us?

- Palai (Kuruntokai - 130)

Non-geographical thinais

Whilst the palai landscape is not associated with a permanently existing landscape, it is nonetheless assigned a definite landscape. The two thinais of kaikkilai and peruntiṇai, however, are assigned no landscape, nor are they named for flowers, instead, they are named directly for the emotions they describe. In Tamil prosody, the reason for this is stated to be that they deal with 'non-conforming' emotions, and consequently cannot be associated with a landscape. Although kaikkilai and peruntiṇai, too, deal with emotions that are similar to those dealt with in the poems that belong to the five geographical thinais. The difference, however, is that in these non-geographical thinais, the situation of the lovers makes the emotions non-conforming.

In kaikkilai, the situation does not fit or conform to any natural setting; the love that animates the feelings in “kaikkilai” is one-sided.

Longing for the feet encircled by anklets of war

and the beard that is the colour of kohl

my bangles hang loose, and I fear my mother.

But if I embrace his conquering shoulders

I may be shamed by the assembly.

May this city tremble in bewilderment like me

torn in two, unable to achieve resolution!- kaikkilai (purananuru - 83)

In perunthinai, the situation is odd or contrary to tradition, such as a union of a man with a woman who is much older, a union where one of the parties does not consent, or a separation that occurs as the result of the breach by one party of his or her duties.

Let your wealth and precious jewels be

We do not want them, O victorious Pekan!

If you would grant a favour to me,

as I, playing on a cevvazhi song on my small harp

sings of your good, forested lands

then O illustrious lord! Go to that pitiful young woman

who is growing thin by your cruelty

and wasting away by the grief of love

Hitch your horses to your great chariot

and ride speedily, that her hair, rich as the tail of a peacock

may again be perfumed, and adorned by a cool, fragrant garland - perunthinai (Purananuru - 146)