Considering Sample Size

When researchers design a study, they must first and foremost consider the research questions of interest. However, another important consideration is the actual size of the sample available for data collection. Imagine two research scenarios (both broadly aimed at the same phenomenon of interest): one with 10 qualified participants and one with 1000 qualified participants.

In your response, first state the phenomenon of interest and then critically answer the following questions related to studying this phenomenon with these very different sample sizes: 

• What kinds of questions can be addressed to investigate your phenomenon of interest with these two largely different sample sizes?

• What types of research designs and methods might be possible to investigate your phenomenon of interest with these two largely different sample sizes?

• How can validity and reliability be defined and established with these two sample sizes?

• What are the implications for applying the findings from research based on these two types of sample sizes for practice?

For each question, be sure to clearly justify and explain your response, drawing from the research design literature as well as the empirical literature related to the phenomenon of interest. You should also use examples to illustrate your points – these examples can be taken from existing research or a hypothetical study you might design. In your response, be sure to compare and contrast the similarities and differences between studying your phenomenon with these largely different research samples. As you respond to these questions, be sure you are consistently referring to the same example phenomenon and research designs (do not choose new phenomena/designs for each question).

How Conceptual Frameworks Matter

Consider an education phenomenon (process, problem, situation, etc.) of interest to you. Choose two different conceptual frameworks that contemporary scholars have used to frame research about this phenomenon. (Note: Keep in mind that a conceptual framework is not necessarily a broad psychological theory such as constructivism or behaviorism. Rather, a conceptual framework is a way of seeing the parts and their relationships in the phenomenon.)

• • Describe a phenomenon or problem that has been examined from two or more different conceptual frameworks.

  • Describe the two conceptual frameworks.

  • Critically examine the role of conceptual frameworks and whether they do, in fact, make a significant difference in the research.

  • Cite relevant literature (either methods books or actual studies).

Standards of quality for research methods

All research should be held to standards of quality, but these standards differ somewhat depending upon the research methods used.1. Select two different research methods used in your area of interest. Describe these methods and cite studies that have used these methods.

2. Describe some characteristics of quality research for each method. Define what you mean by “quality” and how these characteristics are related to that definition. Evaluate the methods used in some studies using these characteristics of quality. 

3. Discuss some similarities and differences among these characteristics of quality research.

Theoretical constructs

A construct can be defined as “a tool used to facilitate understanding of human behaviour. All sciences are built on systems of constructs and their interrelations. The natural sciences use constructs such as gravity, temperature, phylogenetic dominance, tectonic pressure, and global warming. Likewise, the behavioral sciences use constructs such as conscientiousness, intelligence, political power, self-esteem, and group culture.”  (Binning, 2016)

Most constructs can be operationalized in a variety of ways. Focusing on a research topic of interest to you, discuss how this affects three aspects of research: the process of inquiry, the relative merits of research studies, and subsequent theory development. 

Demonstrate your knowledge of the literature through thoughtful connections to scholarship. Also, use headings and sub-headings to make it clear how your response is addressing each part of the question.

Binning, John F. “Construct.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 22 Feb. 2016, www.britannica.com/science/construct.

Comparing Perspectives on Learning

The theoretical perspective chosen by the researcher plays a significant role in shaping what is studied and how it is studied. The purpose of this question is to give you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the role of the theoretical perspective.

1. Compare two different perspectives on learning. Perspectives can include theories or assumptions about how learning takes place. Use the following table structure to organize your comparison. Identify 3-5 dimensions you think critically distinguish the two perspectives. Fill in the table headings and cells with the appropriate summary information.

After the summary table, go into depth comparing the perspectives on each of the dimensions you have chosen. Be sure to maintain a strong focus on what makes the perspectives distinctive from each other. And, since no perspective is 100% different from another, you should also identify important features shared by both perspectives. 

Cite important and representative scholarly work associated with each perspective.

2. Implications of different perspectives for research. Identify research studies grounded in each of these perspectives. Use the preceding table and discussion to organize your analysis of how research studies are critically shaped, or should be shaped, by their perspective on learning. Be sure to emphasize how different perspectives on learning lead to critical differences in the focus and design of research on learning. 

Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods

Researchers who use quantitative methods sometimes argue that qualitative studies are too impressionistic, subjective, and lack rigor.  Researchers who use qualitative methods sometimes argue that quantitative studies are rigid, lack authenticity, and overlook rich variation.

To address these problems, many conclude that a mixed methods approach is best, but is it really that simple?  Can the core criticisms be avoided simply by using both qualitative and quantitative approaches?  Why or why not?  What are some of the challenges that might come up for a researcher who wants to combine methods?  Wherever possible, illustrate your main points with examples of successful or unsuccessful mixed methods studies from the existing literature.

Experimental design and improving education

Many educational researchers are interested in developing teaching practices, learning activities, technologies, or materials that improve student learning or motivation. One can argue that it is best to use studies with experimental design and randomized assignment to demonstrate that these developments do, in fact, lead to the intended outcomes. 

1. What is the basis for this this argument?

2. What is your response to this argument?

3. Are you considering a randomized, experimental design for your dissertation? Identify the strengths and weaknesses of your design choice with regard to randomized, experimental design.

Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research

With social science research, especially quantitative research facing lack of reproducibility and replicability, some have called being the use of hypothesis testing “the dirtiest secret” that stands on “flimsy foundation” (Siegfried, 2010). Even studies published in top journals like Nature and Science are not always replicable, even when sample sizes are five times higher than original studies.

1. Within this landscape, what role can qualitative research play to provide trustworthy account of educational activities? 

2. Discuss how trustworthiness (i.e., reliability and validity) of qualitative data can be achieved when ‘the researcher is the instrument" (Patton, 2002)?

Demonstrate your knowledge of the literature through thoughtful connections to scholarship. Also, use headings and sub-headings to make it clear how your response is addressing each part of the question.

References

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Siegfried, T. (2010), “Odds Are, It’s Wrong: Science Fails to Face the Shortcomings of Statistics,” Science News, 177, 26. Available at  https://www.sciencenews.org/article/odds-are-its-wrong.

Attribution of intervention effects

Researchers sometimes attribute positive effects to the intervention or treatment, but negative or non-effects to factors other than the intervention (e.g., instruments used, participants' prior experiences, implementation of the intervention, limited sample, etc.) To what degree is this happening in your area of interest? 

1. Discuss using two examples of intervention research in your areas of interest. Focus on how negative or non-effects are presented by the authors. 

2. Do you see this as a particularly critical problem in his area of interest? It is natural for researchers to want to see positive effects. But, is there something inherent about the topic, methods, politics, or something else about this research that make it especially prone to this problem? 

Demonstrate your knowledge of the literature through thoughtful connections to scholarship. Also, use headings and sub-headings to make it clear how your response is addressing each part of the question.

Principles of scientific research

The term “principles of scientific research” means the use of rigorous, systematic, and objective methodologies to obtain reliable and valid knowledge (AERA Council, 2008). Specifically, such research requires:

A. development of a logical, evidence-based chain of reasoning;

B. methods appropriate to the questions posed;

C. observational or experimental designs and instruments that provide reliable and generalizable findings;

D. data and analysis adequate to support findings;

E. explication of procedures and results clearly and in detail, including specification of the population to which the findings can be generalized;

Critically evaluate this definition of the principles of scientific research. Which principles seem to you particularly important or compelling and why? Which principles seem problematic or challenging and why? 

Supporting your critique with relevant literature is desirable though not essential. However, be sure to at least illustrate your point with examples, real or hypothetical.

Source: http://www.aera.net/Research-Policy-Advocacy/AERA-Shaping-Research-Policy

The role of theoretical constructs 

Most theoretical constructs can be operationalized in a variety of ways. Focusing on a research topic of interest to you, discuss how this affects the process of inquiry, the relative merits of research studies, and subsequent theory development. 

The role of theoretical perspectives

Focusing on a research topic of interest to you, explain why there can be many different and sometimes even contradictory theoretical perspectives. As you do so, be sure to define, contrast and justify the role of theory in this area of research and what makes one theory “better” than another.  

Validity

Validity is an important consideration in all research.  Methodologists have discussed many categorizations and typologies of validity that include internal, external, content, criterion, construct, interpretive, theoretical, evaluative, and so on. In this question, you will show your understanding of validity by critiquing two studies in terms of their validity. 

1. Pick two empirical studies in your area of interest. These studies should focus on similar, not necessarily identical, issues. They should not be by the same author or related authors. These studies should not use the same methods - e.g., both should not rely primarily on surveys. Give a formal APA citation of each article.

2. Describe the study’s rationale, its research questions, the study design, and its major findings. Use no more than one page to describe each study.

3. Critique each study only in terms of its validity. For each critique point:

   • Define what you mean by validity for that particular point. Provide a citation for each definition of validity you refer to. 

   • Be clear about how your critique point is related to validity. 

   • A critique point can be positive or negative. For a positive critique point explain convincingly why this particular aspect of the study is strong in terms of its validity. Explain how it might easily have been weaker.

   • For each negative point, be clear about why it is weak in terms of its validity. Suggest specific ways the author could address your concern.

   • Write no more than four critique points for each study. 

   • This section should be six to eight pages.

Qualitative & Quantitative Methods

Researchers who use quantitative methods sometimes argue that qualitative studies are too impressionistic, subjective, and lack rigor.  Researchers who use qualitative methods sometimes argue that quantitative studies are rigid, lack authenticity, and overlook rich variation.  To address these problems, many conclude that a mixed methods approach is best, but is it really that simple?  Can the core criticisms be avoided simply by using both qualitative and quantitative approaches?  Why or why not?  What are some of the challenges that might come up for a researcher who wants to combine methods?  Wherever possible, illustrate your main points with examples of successful or unsuccessful mixed methods studies from the existing literature.

Remember to demonstrate your knowledge of the literature through thoughtful connections to scholarship. Also, use headings and sub-headings to make it clear how your response is addressing each part of the question.

How research informs theory

When doctoral students learn about empirical research, they are told that a study should emerge from a basis constituted of relevant studies and theory. Furthermore, the results, discussion, and implications of a study should connect back into the basis from which it emerged. The process of research informing theory – theory defined broadly as the current understanding of a phenomenon – is important, yet often not done well. 

In your response, select two or three empirical studies in your area of interest. Evaluate how well each study informs theory in the article’s discussion and implications section. 

A) When discussing a study’s strength with regard to informing theory, be sure to be specific about how it is strong. 

B) When discussing a study’s weaknesses, be sure to specify clearly how it is being weak, and, more importantly, what the authors could have written to better inform the theory from which the study emerged.

Studying the impact of student and school factors on learning 

Learning in school is impacted by many factors, both within and outside the student.  What are the crucial factors related to student thinking (i.e., variables that the student brings to school)?  What are the crucial factors related to context (i.e., the variables associated with teaching and the school environment)? Most importantly, how can we conceptualize the interactions among these factors in a way that makes studying school learning tractable?  

In your response, identify three student factors and three school factors. Then sketch out a conceptual framework using ideas in the research literature that encompasses interactions within this system. Finally, explain why you've chosen this framework---its strengths---and where it might fall short---its weaknesses.

Quantitative and qualitative methods

Psychologists obtain information about student learning using various methodologies that can be loosely grouped into qualitative versus quantitative approaches.  In your response, first define these two approaches and give examples of each (i.e., what methods are typically considered qualitative?   What methods are typically considered quantitative?)  Do you agree that research can/should be broken down along these lines?  Many researchers work from only one perspective or the other-why do you think this is the case?  Where do you see yourself falling on this continuum and why?

How does Sample Size Matter?

In your inquiry courses, you have heard that good research can have a sample size of 1, 10, or 100 participants. Suppose you had the participants, qualitative and quantitative skills, personnel, time, and any other resources necessary to conduct high quality research with any of these three sample sizes. As you look ahead to your dissertation, which would you choose for your particular line of inquiry?

In your response, share your thought processes in a way that educates readers who are considering the issue of sample size.

-       How would your research change, if at all, if you had different sample sizes? Is it just a matter of scale – that is, doing the same thing, but with more people? Are there other considerations? Other possibilities?

-       What are the affordances and constraints of small, medium, and large sample sizes? Address this methodological issue from both a statistical and a conceptual perspective 

For all parts of this question

-       Use examples to illustrate each of your points. These examples can be actual examples taken from research or your own experience, or they may be hypothetical.

-       Draw on the conceptual and empirical literature to support your discussion.

The work of a conceptual framework

Consider a learning phenomenon of interest to you. Choose two different conceptual frameworks that contemporary scholars might use to frame research about this phenomenon.

Note: Keep in mind that a conceptual framework is not necessarily a broad psychological theory such as constructivism or behaviorism. Rather, a conceptual framework is a way of seeing the parts and their relationships in the phenomenon.

Part 1. Describe the “work” of these two conceptual frameworks with respect what does they do for the inquiry. Among other things, your response should address:

1.    What exactly are the two conceptual frameworks? Describe each, taking care to be explicit about how each is, indeed, a conceptual framework.

2.    How does each framework “frame”? How does each direct attention to some things and not others?

3.    How does each framework support certain kinds of inquiry and not others?

This part of the question should take approximately 6 pages.

Part 2. Consider your own research interest, perhaps your practicum or dissertation.

1.    Describe the conceptual framework you’ve chosen. If you’ve already done this in the previous part of the question, you can refer back to that part.

2.    Argue why this conceptual framework is a better choice than other possible frameworks. The key here is to make this a tight, logical, evidence-supported argument. It is not sufficient to describe the framework and its purported virtues, and to assume that the reader will agree with you.

·       Use examples to illustrate each of your points. These examples can be actual examples taken from research or your own experience, or they may be hypothetical.

·       Make specific, in-depth comparisons to other frameworks.

·       Draw on the conceptual and empirical literature to support your discussion.

This part of the question should take approximately 4 pages

The nature of educational research

The field of educational research is roiled with controversy of the most fundamental sort. Most of these controversies concern the value and effectiveness of educational research. Some of the issues include:

… Should educational research be a science, perhaps on the model of medical research?

… Why is educational research so often held in low regard?

… Which methods, quantitative or qualitative, are better for educational questions?

… Why has educational research had such limited or debatable impact on improving educational practice?

(a)  Describe three of what you feel to be the most important points of controversy in educational research today.  Elaborate the details of the controversy, the different perspectives on the issue, and possible resolutions. Support your discussion by drawing on the literature on methodology and citing specific examples from research studies.

(b)  How do these debates about methodology and the direction of the field impact your thinking as a new researcher in an area within learning, technology and culture?  Describe your specific area of planned research, and provide details about how the methodological and field-direction issues you just discussed will impact what you do.  Again, be very specific with respect to possible research projects and how these concerns would impact how you would proceed.

Standards of quality for research methodology  

All research should be held to standards of quality, but these standards differ somewhat depending upon the research methodology used.

1.     Select three different research methods used in your area of interest. Point to particular studies that have used these methods. For each, begin by explain what the method is and the kinds of questions it is well suited to answering.

2.     Describe some characteristics of quality research for each method.

3.     Conclude by discussing similarities and differences among these characteristics of quality research.

Controversies about the value and effectiveness of educational research

The field of educational research is roiled with controversy of the most fundamental sort. Most of these controversies concern the value and effectiveness of educational research. Some of the issues include: Should educational research be a science, perhaps on the model of medical research? Why is educational research so often held in low regard? Which methods, quantitative or qualitative, are better for educational questions? Why has educational research had such limited or debatable impact on improving educational practice?

In your response, clearly address the following.

1.    Describe what you feel to be the three most important points of current methodological controversy in your specific area of research.  Elaborate the details of the controversy, the different perspectives on the issue, and possible resolutions. Support your discussion by drawing on the literature on methodology and citing specific examples from research studies.

2.    Follow your analysis with a discussion of how these debates about methodology and the direction of the field impact your thinking about how to proceed in your particular line of research.  Again, be very specific with respect to possible research projects and how the concerns you’ve described would impact how you would proceed.

Communicating with Practitioners about Learning

Suppose you are working in an educational setting of your choice after graduating from this Program. This setting could include doctoral programs similar to LTC, teacher education programs, technology design centers, state Departments of Education, businesses that contract to support workplace learning, and so on. Also, suppose that a smart practitioner from your setting (e.g., a teacher, a worker, a user of some new technology, a prospective teacher, etc.) asks about a “new idea” related to learning and openly questions whether this idea can be truly be helpful in their setting.

Their challenge to you is: “I have heard about this idea called [you supply the particular idea] and it sounds like silly jargon. I want to know from you why I should pay attention to this idea. Is it anything more than a new word for an old idea?” In other words, they think they have heard this all before and the only difference is the new terminology.

Select a new idea about learning (that is likely to be new to your anticipated practitioners and powerful to you) and make the case for why this idea is worth learning. Examples of “new” ideas about learning are many, e.g., situated learning, multiple literacies, distributed cognition, possible selves, etc.  Also, new may mean new to the way most of us are accustomed to thinking about things. It does not have to mean new in terms of age. For example, Dewey or Vygotsky’s ideas have been around for a while, but new meanings and ways of seeing with them are still emerging.

In your response you should:

    1.    Describe the educational setting in which this discussion might occur.

    2.    Describe the idea you might propose to them as new and helpful. Provide supportive theory and/or research associated with it

    3.    Explain how practitioners in this setting might find this idea to be nothing more than “silly jargon” or “a new word” for an old idea.

    4.    Justify why this idea is not mere jargon or a new word for an old idea. Explain how this idea can be useful to your practitioner in ways that other ideas cannot.

The Nature of Educational Research

The field of educational research is roiled with controversy of the most fundamental sort. Most of these controversies concern the value and effectiveness of educational research. Some of the issues include:

… Should educational research be a science, perhaps on the model of medical research?

… Why is educational research so often held in low regard?

… Which methods, quantitative or qualitative, are better for educational questions?

… Why has educational research had such limited or debatable impact on improving educational practice?

(c)  Describe three of what you feel to be the most important points of controversy in educational research today.  Elaborate the details of the controversy, the different perspectives on the issue, and possible resolutions. Support your discussion by drawing on the literature on methodology and citing specific examples from research studies.

(d)  How do these debates about methodology and the direction of the field impact your thinking as a new researcher in an area within learning, technology and culture?  Describe your specific area of planned research, and provide details about how the methodological and field-direction issues you just discussed will impact what you do.  Again, be very specific with respect to possible research projects and how these concerns would impact how you would proceed.

Research informing practice

Educational practitioners are interested in what works. In educational research, however, it is rare to find strong assertions about what works. It is more common to hear that something works with certain students under certain conditions, and that research findings should be replicated to be more conclusive. Furthermore, research findings replicated by other studies or based on large-scale studies are often criticized as “obvious” by practitioners.

If research findings are often perceived as inconclusive, limited in scope, or obvious, what then is the proper relationship between educational research and the improvement of practice? In your response:

-       Elaborate on the nature of this problem. Give examples when possible.

-       What actions, if any, should be taken and how do these actions address the problem of research informing practice?

For all parts of this question

    •    Use examples to illustrate each of your points. These examples can be actual examples taken from research or your own experience, or they may be hypothetical.

    •    Draw on the conceptual and empirical literature to support your discussion.

How does Sample Size Matter?

In your inquiry courses, you have heard that good research can have a sample size of 1, 10, or 100 participants. Suppose you had the participants, qualitative and quantitative skills, personnel, time, and any other resources necessary to conduct high quality research with any of these three sample sizes. As you look ahead to your dissertation, which would you choose for your particular line of inquiry?

In your response, share your thought processes in a way that educates readers who are considering the issue of sample size.

-       How would your research change, if at all, if you had different sample sizes? Is it just a matter of scale – that is, doing the same thing, but with more people? Are there other considerations? Other possibilities?

-       What are the affordances and constraints of small, medium, and large sample sizes? Address this methodological issue from both a statistical and a conceptual perspective

For all parts of this question

    •    Use examples to illustrate each of your points. These examples can be actual examples taken from research or your own experience, or they may be hypothetical.

    •    Draw on the conceptual and empirical literature to support your discussion.

Designed Based Research

Design Based Research (DBR) has received a great deal of attention lately.

In particular proponents of DBR argue that this new form of research addresses one of the most important problems of standard educational research, that of a separation between educational research and problems and issues of everyday practice.

Please address the following points in your response.

a) Briefly, describe the key tenets of DBR in particular, contrasting DBR with standard research approaches, and explain how DBR addresses some of the concerns with these approaches.

b) Proponents of DBR often argue for the importance of "innovation" and "theory building." Why is this dual-emphasis on innovation and theory important and how do DBR proponents explain how such theories can be developed from the application of educational innovation.

c) Finally offer your opinion of DBR, with a particular emphasis of why this approach is valuable (or not valuable).

In each case, support your argument with citations from the research and theoretical literature.

Methodology

The excerpt below is taken from: Shavelson, R., & Towne, L. (2002). Scientific research in education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press (pp. 3-4).

SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLE 3: Use Methods That Permit Direct Investigation of the Question. Methods can only be judged in terms of their appropriateness and effectiveness in addressing a particular research question. Moreover, scientific claims are significantly strengthened when they are subject to testing by multiple methods. While appropriate methodology is important for individual studies, it also has a larger aspect. Particular research designs and methods are suited for specific kinds of investigations and questions, but can rarely illuminate all the questions and issues in a line of inquiry. Therefore, very different methodological approaches must often be used in various parts of a series of related studies.

According to Shavelson and Towne (2002), multiple methodological approaches may be useful in illuminating various aspects of an investigation. Your task in this question is to illustrate and explore how particular research designs are more or less useful in exploring a research topic.

(a) Begin by articulating a research topic that is of interest to you.

(b) Find two empirical studies that study some aspect of your research topic but that do so using two different research designs. Briefly summarize the goals, designs, and findings of the two studies. Carefully justify your choice of studies by explaining why you feel that the designs used qualify as “different.”

(c) Evaluate each of the two articles in terms of how appropriate each research design is for exploring the topic. What aspects of the topic does each design illuminate or obscure? Is one design more appropriate than the other, and why?

(d) Suggest and describe an additional, different research design that could be used to further explore this same topic. What aspects of the topic does your new design illuminate or obscure, as compared to the other two studies?

(e) As a follow-up to your discussion of the importance of multiple methodologies, what can you say about a related issue addressed in the NRC report – what constitutes scientific research. Specifically, certain kinds of research might not be called 'scientific' by some who take an especially conservative stance on the matter might at the same time be considered legitimate and valuable by other large sectors of the education research community. Summarize the main arguments from each side, and give your own view on the matter.

Finding paradigms

The field of educational psychology has always had competing theoretical paradigms.  What do you consider to be the most viable current paradigms (i.e., general approaches, not individual theories)? What are the most important characteristics of each, and how do they most fundamentally differ with respect to the kinds of research questions they ask, the methods they use to answer those questions, and their approaches to instruction?  How do the paradigms differ in their implications for the design and study of learning technologies?

High-stakes standardized achievement tests as assessments of student learning

Recently, passage of the Federal No Child Left Behind Act, the United States has joined most other countries in examining every student's school achievement with regular "high stakes" standardized testing. These tests contain many items, most in a multiple-choice format, and are to be completed in a relatively short period of time.

    1.    Begin by accepting the premise that the regular (e.g., annual) assessment of all students with state or national "tests" is warranted. Then, apply relevant theory and empirical research to evaluate whether such many-item, multiple-choice tests are "good" assessments of educational achievement. Be sure to clarify what educational outcomes should be targeted in such assessments, as well as whether current standardized tests assess them well.

    2.    Set aside your feelings about whether current assessments are appropriate, and discuss the feasibility of organizing national assessments of school learning in other ways (that is, with other sorts of items generating other sorts of responses).

This question is not asking you to write an "opinion essay." Instead, you are to write a carefully reasoned argument, supported by relevant theory and empirical research.

Research Informs Tools and Interventions?

Educational tools or interventions—for example, curricula, instructional approaches, or educational technologies—are often, but not always, designed to address learning problems or obstacles that have been identified in research.

Choose an educational tool or intervention with which you are familiar.  Argue whether you think the design of the tool or intervention has been supported by research on learning.  If you argue that research has informed the design, then describe that research and how it has informed the design of the tool or intervention.  If you argue that research has not informed the design, explain what considerations did inform the design and why research on learning may not have been an influence.

The Shadow of Your Theoretical Perspective

Learning is a multi-faceted phenomenon that occurs in multiple domains and contexts. From a child learning to match shapes and colors to a senior citizen learning to cope with illness and death, learning happens everywhere and all the time. It happens in video game arcades, and in classrooms, through casual conversations in bars, and in the regimented rigor of an aircraft carrier. It happens when we learn to fly a kite and it happens when we have to re-learn how to tie our shoelaces after a serious accident. It happens in non-humans too. Songbirds learn to sing mating songs, and dogs learn to fetch sticks or Frisbees.

Clearly any theory of learning must deal with this rich and complex tapestry of learning. And that is a tall order. Given this:

-       Choose your favorite theory or perspective of learning in your work and describe it briefly. Explain why this is your favorite theory or perspective.

-       Give some examples of learning that your learning theory explains well (you could consider aspects of learning or contexts of learning that suit your case). Discuss how your favorite theory addresses learning, particularly given the range of contexts that learning occurs in and the different kinds of learning that exist? Include in your discussion, thoughts about how your theory may or may not be missing something.

Control, Replicability, and Generalizability in Research in Natural Settings

In educational psychology, there has been a long-standing tradition where research involves experiments conducted in research labs. In this tradition, the hallmarks of good research were often seen as control, replicability, and generalizability. There is also an emerging tradition where research is conducted in more natural settings with less emphasis on strictly controlled conditions, random assignment, and large samples.

Your task is to take a critical, even-handed look at the issue of control, replicability, and generalizability. Keep in mind that the distinction between the two traditions is not necessarily a quantitative/qualitative one.

1. Begin with a ½ page description of an example of published research in a naturalistic setting.

2. Take the perspective of a traditional experimentalist and discuss why they may have concerns about control, replicability, and generalizability in this study. Make sure the critique points are specific to the particulars of the study.

3. Take the perspective of the “naturalistic” researcher and respond to the critique points.

4. Conclude by expressing your own position on the issues of control, replicability, and generalizability in research in natural settings.

Research Design

It is widely recommended that the design of a research study should be determined by the research questions rather than the general topic, the researcher's comfort level with particular methodologies, or convenience.

Part 1. Define research design. Since the definition may vary somewhat in the field, you should cite several definitions from good sources. The definition should be fairly precise – that is, say more than “how a something is studied.” Compare and contrast the definitions. Conclude by selecting one of the definitions or by creating a hybrid definition. This section should be 3-4 pages.

Part 2. Identify two studies in your area of interest. Use the definition from Part 1 to critique the research design of each study. In particular focus on:

-       How well the research design fits the research questions.

-       How the research design could have been improved (within practical constraints) to improve the fit between research question and design.

Throughout your response, you should be analyzing and arguing, rather than simply describing. Check your response frequently to be sure you are making a strong argument to support your point about the study design, rather than just describing the study design. This section should be 6-7 pages.