An Investigation into the Characteristic and Origin of Longgu (Os Draconis) and Longchi (Dens Draconis) or Fossilised Bones and Teeth as Materia Medica in Java

Sukiato Khurniawan1,2*, Mika R Puspaningrum3, Pipit Meilinda1,2, Christine Hertler4, Charlenne Kayla Roesli5, Robert-Jan Wille2, Eduard Pop6, Tjahjono Prasodjo1, and Sofwan Noerwidi7

Since at least 2,000 years ago, fossilized bones and teeth, respectively known as longgu (dragon bone; os draconis) and longchi (dragon teeth; dens draconis), have been used in Chinese medications. As Chinese communities migrated worldwide, they carried this knowledge with them. In the 19th and 20th centuries, European palaeontologists traced medicinal fossils in Chinese drugstores across China, Southeast Asia, and the United States, where significant species were identified. Historical accounts also reported fossil mining across Java to supply this trade. This research aims to identify longgu-longchi extractions in Java during the 19th-20th centuries and to examine present-day practices in Chinese drugstores in major Javanese cities with large Chinese populations. Interviews with sellers were conducted to understand the origin, meaning, and uses of the specimens. Scientific analyses complemented these accounts through XRF tests to assess the chemical composition, while microscopic analysis and SEM observations to examine the internal structure. Combined together, these methods tested the authenticity of fossils sold, i.e. not counterfeit/substitutes, and whether they met the quality as materia medica. To identify the provenance, a similar comparative set of analyses was performed on fossils from reported mining sites such as Patiayam, as well as from major sites without documented mining but of potential supply, such as Trinil and Sangiran. The study ultimately evaluates whether fossils currently sold in drugstores are Indonesian or imported (e.g., from China), and whether they are genuine or counterfeit, particularly in the light of 21st-century regulations to protect fossils in Indonesia and China.