Peace through Sport: Modern Lessons from Ancient Sources

Jacques A. Bromberg, University of Pittsburgh

This paper continues and expands previous work on peace and sport in the ancient world. There is no more enduring value in today’s global sporting culture than the pursuit of peace. Yet it has long been observed that tension between the International Olympic Committee (which emphasizes peace, understanding, and solidarity) and the individual National Olympic Committees (which privilege national interests) leaves international sport vulnerable to crisis. In a forthcoming essay, I examine how the rhetoric of the ancient “Olympic truce” (ekecheiría) has re-emerged in recent years as a tool for promoting peace through sport. Historians have been eager to quip about the ekecheiría that no wars stopped during the ancient games and that philosophical articulations of Panhellenic unanimity (homónoia) were only wishful thinking; but these criticisms, which privilege the city-state (pólis) as the sole point of reference in ancient Greek cultural politics, miss the larger point that ancient athletics did often function, albeit on a more granular scale, as means of conflict resolution. In this paper, I describe various ways in which athletics contributed to ancient peace building processes. Within polities, athletics helped to re-integrate veterans socially, to foster feelings of continuity and belonging, to reunite divided constituencies, and to rebuild an appreciation for the rule of law. Among and beyond polities, the supra-civic structures of athletic training and competition provided opportunities to build different types of networks through individual mobility, connectivity, and reciprocity. Borrowing methodologies from the field of Global Studies, my argument uses ancient evidence alongside modern examples to demonstrate these processes at work in antiquity and today.

From moderatio to clementia: Cardinal Virtues of the Roman Statesman after the Civil Wars

Gilson Charles dos Santos, Universidade de Brasília

This talk is concerned with the role played by clementia (clemency) as a particular peacebuilding skill in the Late Roman Republic and Early Principate. More specifically, my aim is to investigate some of the historical and philosophical conditions that determinate the change of moderatio or temperance into clemency. My claim is that clemency becomes a concept closely related to the new stage of autocratic political power derived from Civil Wars, and therefore essential not only to justify the authority of the princeps but also to establish the requirements of the Pax Romana. Concentrating primarily on Pseudo-Sallust, Cicero, August, Seneca and Tacitus writings, I wish to demonstrate that moderatio and clementia are interrelated virtues applied to different historical contexts.

Key words: Clemency; Temperance; Pax Romana; Ancient History; Ancient Philosophy.

Conflicts concerning the use of water in Roman legal writings and in early 19th-century texts from Mexico

Christer Bruun, University of Toronto

A substantial but often unrecognized part of ancient Latin literature consists of the texts written by Roman jurists. To be sure, these texts do not pretend to be literature in the same sense as poetry and other forms of artful literature do. However, in the legal commentaries written by Roman jurists, who often were among the most formidable intellects of their time, we do have texts that present opinions and represent creative writing of a certain kind. Above all, and important for the present context, the writings of the Roman jurists are highly relevant when it comes to the resolution of conflicts.

It can well be said that the opinions written by Roman jurists mainly aim at resolving conflicts. In this paper, the focus will be on conflicts concerning the use and management of water. In today’s world, we are becoming ever more conscious of the fact that (clean) water in many places is becoming a scarce resource, regardless of the technology over which human societies now dispose.

A similar situation existed in antiquity, and the Roman administrators and jurists developed a sophisticated system for how to organize the water supply of both cities and agricultural communities. The preserved legal opinions of the jurists reveal how conflicts arose in the countryside between those on whose land hydraulic resources could be found and surrounding farmers. In the cities of the empire, there was often not enough water, even when long-distance aqueducts were built; theft of water through illegal conduits was apparently endemic. Guaranteeing the purity of existing hydraulic resources was another concern.

The influence of Roman law on later periods of European history is well known. Less well known is that when one studies collections of legal statutes in the Americas – for the purpose of this paper, Spanish and Mexican legislation (see J.P. Kimball, Laws and Decrees of the State of Coahuila and Texas, 1839; J.A. Rockwell, A Compilation of Spanish and Mexican Law in relation to Mines and Titles to Real Estate, in Force in California, Texas, and New Mexico, 1851) – it is revealed that in many ways the solutions regarding conflicts over the use of water between different stakeholders can be traced back to Roman law, as transmitted in the opinions of the Roman jurists.

Can military force ever be a successful conflict resolution tool?: The case of the Shining Path in Peru, 1980-1993

Marina Miron, University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy

This paper uses Carl von Clausewitz’s theory of war to assess the extent to which military force can be used as a tool for Conflict Resolution. While the broader understanding of the term ‘conflict resolution’ calls for some form of compromise between warring parties (usually with the interference of an external third party), for the purpose of this paper I will examine conflict resolution through the lens of Clausewitz’s theory of war, in which the successful conclusion of a conflict equates to the achievement of one party’s political objectives. This paper will analyse the Peruvian insurgency, 1980-1993, in order to demonstrate how the use of force can be used to resolve conflicts. Here the state – without negotiating a settlement – achieved its political objectives by using military force. My focus will be on how the use of force changed throughout the war and at what stage and why it started yielding strategically significant results in favour of the state. Additionally, the paper will discuss what other factors contributed to the successful conclusion of the conflict. My rationale for studying the Peruvian case lies in the fact that the impetus for the insurgency itself was similar to that experienced in Colombia and characteristic of that time period in Latin America. In conclusion the paper will suggest how this Peruvian case study on intrastate war can serve as exemplum for the current Colombian conflict.

Approaching Amnesty through the Ancient World

Kathryn Tempest, University of Roehampton

Amnesty as a means of conflict resolution is well-documented in the ancient world. In Athens and other Greek poleis, from where the practice may have spread to Rome, it offered a powerful form of forgetting and reconciliation (see e.g. Flower 1996: 23-25). Meanwhile, at Rome, Livy seems to attest to an early use of amnesty in the settling of disputes when he records that, in 342 BC, the dictator M. Valerius Corvus pardoned a band of mutinous soldiers, ‘granting immunity to all who had taken part in the secession’ (ne cui militum fraudi secessio esset, Livy 7.41.3; cf. Oakley 2005: 568). Yet, of all the amnesties in Greece and Rome, two stand out as the most famous or infamous: the settlement reached in Athens after the fall of the tyrants in 403 BC and the peace deal negotiated by Cicero after the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC, which itself sought but failed to emulate the success of its Greek model. In this paper, I shall provide the context for understanding these two amnesty agreements, as well as their representation in our literary sources, before addressing what lessons can be learned from their successes and failures. Drawing on contemporary moves to understand the peace process less as a political solution focused on successful negotiations with insurgent groups, and more as a collaborative enterprise towards peacebuilding with a broader spectrum of interested parties (pace Rettberg 2006: 36-37), it will look ahead to possible themes for exploration in the outreach phase of this project, focussing on issues such as transitional justice, conditional versus blanket amnesties, as well as the need to involve civil society in the formulation of peace policies.

Flower, H.I. 2006. The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture. Chapel Hill.

Oakley, S.P. 2005. A Commentary on Livy, Books VI-X. Oxford.

Rettberg, A. 2006. Buscar la paz en medio del conflicto: un propósito que no da tregua: un estudio de las iniciativas de paz en Colombia (desde los años 90 hasta hoy). Bogotá.

“Not for the likes of us”: Ancient Greek Literature as a Means of Empowerment

Charlene Miotti, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora

This paper presents the main findings from a pilot study conducted in 2018 with 30 first-term students in an evening literature course at the Federal University of Juiz de Fora (Minas Gerais, Brazil). The study assessed their self-declared affect and mood (Ekkekakis, 2013) after each tryout in a set of four ‘Team-Based Learning’ (TBL) activities about Homer’s Iliad, Hesiod’s Theogony, Archaic melic poetry and Euripides’ Medea. TBL dynamics are generated through dialogue between groups of 5 to 7 students, all working simultaneously on the same set text which they have prepared in advance either at home or in a previous class. The teacher acts as a facilitator, while the students take an active role in reflecting on the text, searching for answers and developing social skills through cooperative learning (Michaelsen et al., 1997). Meaningful results with TBL in Greek language classes have already been observed (Bayerle, 2013), but its applicability in the field of literature (and other human sciences grounded on interpretation and abstract thinking) has not received enough attention, nor have its applications to socially-vulnerable audiences. Most of the participating students in our study work during the day, have very limited time to study and come from peripheral neighborhoods where violence plays a significant role in daily life. Both qualitative data gathered from student feedback and quantitative data reveals that the TBL approach can contribute to building self-esteem and encouraging these conflict-affected students to voice their opinion while negotiating in pairs for compromise solutions. Ultimately, it is our belief that a positive classroom experience in the first term may decrease drop-out rates (which can be as high as 30%), and is therefore a key factor in the effective democratisation of higher education which began in 2012, when the racial and social quotas system for Brazilian public universities was sanctioned as part of a broader government policy to reduce social inequality.

Women Resolving Conflicts through Peaceful Means in Antiquity: Fact and Fiction in the Works of Stesichorus, Aristophanes, and Plutarch

Ronald Forero Álvarez, Universidad de la Sabana

This paper analyses texts by Stesichorus, Aristophanes, and Plutarch in order to highlight the advantages of including women in conflict resolution processes; their participation opens up otherwise closed paths towards ending hostilities. In countries at war such as Colombia, women’s opinions are not commonly taken into account in conflict resolution, although they are most vulnerable to some of the consequences of conflict. As the Colombian government has recently acknowledged, armed conflict exacerbates pre-existing difficulties faced by women such as exclusion, stigmatization, and discrimination. The perspectives of women are therefore of central importance in investigating both the impact and resolution of armed conflicts. An ancient example of a woman leading the peace process can be found in a fragment of Stesichorus’ Thebais, wherethe Queen of Thebes proposes a Solomonic solution to avert the war looming over her polis (‘city-state’) and the ensuing death of her children: one of her sons is to stay and rule in Thebes, while the other one should exile himself but inherit his father’s riches (fr. 97 Finglass; PMGF 222b). This undoubtedly constitutes a wise and well-negotiated solution to the fratricidal war which would otherwise break out within Thebes. Similarly, female-led initiatives such as Lysistrata’s well-known attempt to end the Peloponnesian War through a sex strike exemplify the creativity and organisation which women employ while tackling conflict. What is more, Plutarch outlines seven stories in his Bravery of Women where women resolve conflicts through peaceful means. These narratives stand out due to their emphasis on generosity, love, and other virtues which are not usually associated with men in war contexts.

The Colombian Peace Process: Achievements and Challenges

Beatriz Angelika Rettberg, Universidad de los Andes

In this talk, I will examine how conflict actors came to the negotiating table in 2012, what the negotiations achieved, and what the remaining challenges are for consolidating peace in Colombia. I will draw from historical, economic, and political evidence to suggest the need to understand the current Colombian situation from multiple perspectives. In brief, my argument is that peacebuilding does not occur in a vacuum and that many of the ongoing challenges to lasting peace in Colombia relate to other processes currently occurring in both Colombian and global society.

Solving Conflicts the Phaeacian Way: Peace Learning Experiences in the Odyssey

Rodrigo Verano, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

Jonathan Shay’s Achilles in Vietnam(1994) and Odysseus in America (2002) have shown how extraordinary guides are the Iliad and the Odyssey to understand combat and post-combat trauma. In the latter monograph, subtitled “The Trials of Homecoming,” Odysseus’ journey is approached as a collection of experiences describing a process, however incomplete, from war to peace, that is, from an identity placed and settled in violence to an environment where people have to live with each other and find peaceful solutions when problems arise.

This paper focuses on conflict resolution situations as peace learning experiences within this educational process, whose climax coincides with the stay of the hero among the Phaeacians, a community that has learned to enjoy the benefits of peace (cf. the description of his people provided by king Alcinous: “We are not faultless boxers, no, nor wrestlers; but in the foot-race we run swiftly, and in our ships excel. Dear to us ever is the feast, the harp the dance, changes of clothes, warm baths, and bed” [Od. 8.246-50]). The period among the Phaeacians worked most effectively as a peace-making school for Odysseus, as evidence by the episode of the fight threat between the hero and Euryalus, steered by the mediation of the king towards reconciliation:

EUR.- “Hail, good old stranger! If any word was uttered that was harsh, straight let the sweeping winds bear it away.”

OD.- “You too, my friend, all hail! May the gods grant you fortune, and may you never miss the sword you give, making amends besides in what you say.”

The examination of these examples — in contrast with instances of conflict situations otherwise solved in Homer (e.g. the “medicated” happiness of Menelaos and Helen thanks to her pharmakon) — will provide the basis for a typology of peace learning experiences in ancient narrative.

Vegetius and the 'Epitome' of Roman Military Science

David Whetham, King's College London

Vegetius wrote the Epitome of Military Science for an Empire that was in decline. He was aware of the forces massing against them and wrote a treatise on how to make the most of Rome’s strengths. Specifically, the clever use of quality over quantity.

His writing contains the carefully distilled wisdom of his age and it is hardly surprising therefore that his text (and clever adaptations and paraphrasing) was in almost continuous use right up until the early modern period.

What does Vegetius have to tell us about ending wars, the relationship between conduct and outcomes, or how to achieve political success from martial endeavours? This paper will explore how his words influenced and helped shape European military thought for over a thousand years.

Roman Exempla: Creating Space for Dialogue

Rebecca Langlands, University of Exeter

Roman cultural memory passed down dozens of exemplary stories that were charged with moral and cultural value, as part of their exemplary ethics. These tales were, however, usually to some degree ambiguous in their moral significance. Their open-endedness inspired ethical debate and the peculiarly Roman form of “controversial thinking” developed within declamation, where scenarios were considered from every perspective and re-interpreted in multiple ways. Like African “dilemma tales”, fables, and ambiguous tales from other cultures, then, Roman exempla were taken as the basis for discussion and argument about morally challenging issues. Their accessible narrative form and their value as shared cultural heritage made them especially effective for bringing communities together to think about difficult issues. This paper will consider the role of cultural storytelling in the facilitation of dialogue, critical thinking and the co-production of meaning. It will explore the possibility that discussion of Roman exempla might be able offer a space for creative dialogue around difficult social and moral problems, and for enabling discussion to move forward when negotiation has stalled.

Aesopic Fables and the Acquisition of Conflict Resolution Skills and Social Competence in Classics Outreach Programs

Paula da Cunha Correa, Universidade de São Paulo

In what manner can the study of Classical fables develop empathy, cooperative problem solving, and reduce the high levels of reactive and proactive aggression in our elementary schools? After a brief survey of the uses of the fable in literature and education in Classical antiquity, this paper shall present two cases of the introduction of Aesopic fables in Latin America: the 16^th century Nahuatl versions from Mexico, and the modern Portuguese versions by Monteiro Lobato (1882 – 1948), Brazil’s most renowned author of children’s literature. The recognition of the successes and shortcomings in these historical case-studies may prove to be useful in producing of pedagogical materials based on Classical fables for outreach programs in Latin American public schools.

Beyond Senecan Conflict: resolution and reception in Octavia and beyond

Emma Buckley, University of St Andrews

Seneca’s tragedies, written in the early imperial era, infamously reject the resolution, divine justice and sense of ‘closure’ offered even in the most terrible human conflicts of the Greek tragic stage. Within a Greek mythological frame, Seneca’s Roman works explore the human cost of suffering in the wake of war (e.g. Troades) and investigate the limitless power of tyranny (e.g. Thyestes) in ways which have obvious resonance for Seneca’s own times. While modern readers might imagine that this bleak and morally challenging body of work blazons the impossibility of conflict resolution at literal, narrative, and structural levels, read again through a ‘Peace and Conflict Studies’ lens, we might find new things to see in Seneca’s mingling of ‘personal’ and ‘structural’ violence, his complex framing of the justness of conflict, and his strongly political evocations of the relationship between ruler and state in peace-building and resolving conflict at the ‘national’ level, when read through a ‘Peace and Conflict Studies’ lens. In this paper I will explore some of the ways these questions in Senecan Tragedy have already been addressed through two case-studies. First examining the political and familial conflicts of the fabula praetexta ‘Octavia’ – a historical play written shortly after Seneca’s death, and closely based on Senecan tragedy – I then move to a later stage of Senecan reception, the neo-Latin Senecan university plays of late Elizabethan England. Focussing in particular on William Gager’s 1591 Ulysses Redux – a play that puts Odysseus’ violent return to Ithaca under the spotlight and explores the justness of his vengeance on the suitors he finds at home – I show how Senecan ‘conflict resolution’ is central to early modern questions about the possibility of justice in conflict and the potential for reconciliation after conflict, questions central to education and personal, cultural and national identity both then and now.

Plea and Mercy: Forgiveness as a Revelation of ἦθος

Andrea Lozano Vásquez, Universidad de los Andes

Since Aristophanes (5th c. B.C.E.) and until Augusto Boal (1992), understanding theater as a political instrument has had a long tradition, albeit a vague one. In fact, the question as to its specific function and natural place has yet to be clarified. One reason for this might be that, from the very formulation of such political function, playwrights have emphasized the interaction between social actors and the actual change of their environments. Such objectives are indeed ambitious and are often exogenous to the aesthetic fact—the essence of theatre. Although the effect of theater depends largely on its collective character, the change that undoubtedly takes place is, in essence, individual.

Due to its political overtones, plays concerning historical themes seem to be the proper object of such an interpretation. This is the case of Euripides’ Suppliants. However, this interpretation wanes the moment one considers the playwright’s point of view at the work’s inception. As it is well known, The Suppliants is the tragedy of the defeated opponent. Still, this fact does not justify what has happened nor proves the Athenians right, as the victor's gaze fails to revictimize. On the contrary, on the threshold of justice, the play places respect for the other's humanity and piety as the mainstay of reconciliation, before any other claim. What role and effect did this play have upon the triumphant Athens? What sort of change can one enact, or desire to enact, upon a past event in which, in addition, we were victorious? This paper aims to explore this transforming function in the specific case of the Euripidean play. From an aesthetic perspective, the play appeals to a series of emotions and uses the experimentation of pleasure both as a sign and a trigger of self-examination, not only of individuals but also of their society. In a post-conflict scenario, such as the Athenian or ours, perhaps the most pressing change, as well as the hardest to carry out, is one’s own. Such a self-knowledge, I claim, is the true transformation which classical theater can afford.