John Burroughs

Rory Clifford

05/11/2009

Professor Nichols

John Burroughs: Embracing Science with Transcendentalism

In 1789, many have argued the first piece in the genre of Literary Natural History was written. Gilbert White wrote The Natural History of Selborn. This marked the beginning of a genre that John Burroughs mastered and popularized (Buckley). Great writers continued this genre after White. Some inspirations for Burroughs were writers like William Wordsworth, Walt Whitman, and Ralph Waldo Emerson (Westbrook). However, the man that many people consider the most decorate nature writer, was not an idol for Burroughs. Henry David Thoreau, who is seen today as the father of the nature essay, was highly criticized by Burroughs (Buckley). Through Burroughs’ growth as a writer, he inspired the American Nature Movement. Before many people could interpret our impact on the earth, Burroughs knew that a healthy relationship of people and the land must be developed (Julianne Warren). Burroughs was a man of great popularity, and through his journeys he made many powerful friends. By associating with the great minds of the world, Burroughs was able to constantly reevaluate his stances, and use the knowledge of others to his advantage.

John Burroughs was born on April 3, 1837, in Roxbury, New York. His parents, Chauncey A. Burroughs and Amy Kelly, were both farmers. From a young age, Burroughs was able to have a relationship with the land. The perspective of the farmer allowed him to understand the give and take that humans created with nature. After studying in many fields, in 1854, he Burroughs began to teach. While teaching and studying medicine, Burroughs met his future wife, Ursula. Ursula also came from a family of farmers. At the age of twenty, they married. Controversy appeared in his personal life when Burroughs and his wife adopted a child. This child was born of Burroughs and a woman with whom he was having an affair; Ursula knew nothing of the affair. He began his writing career in 1857. Burroughs sent contributions to the New York Saturday Press, the Atlantic Monthly, and the New York Leader. He moved to Washington D.C. in 1863, and took a job at the Currency Bureau of the Treasury Department. This job was certainly vital at the time, as the toll on the country from the Civil War weighed heavily. In 1871, Burroughs released Wake-Robin. This is considered to be his most well know work. It is a collection of nature essays. He moved back to New York in 1872, after resigning from his job at the Treasury Department. Burroughs built a house on the Hudson River, and devoted most of his time to writing. He regularly sent works to popular periodicals, and grew and sold berries as a side income. 1877 was the first year that his works were used as texts in schools. He went on to release Winter Sunshine, Locusts and Wild Honey, Pepacton, Signs and Seasons, and Riverby, in 1875, 1879, 1881, 1886, and 1894 respectively. He met Dr. Clara Barras in 1901. She became his full time physician, assistant, typist, and friend. Burroughs’ wife died in 1917, with John himself meeting the grave in 1921. Burroughs continued to release works of posthumously through Barras (Westbrook).

Throughout Burroughs’ life, he encountered many powerful and influential people. He began to read the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and John James Audubon during the 1850’s. Burroughs cites that it was Emerson who opened his eyes to the beauty of nature. While he already had his views of human’s relationship to nature, it was Emerson’s transcendentalism theory that caught Burroughs’ attention. While working in Washington D.C., Burroughs met Walt Whitman. The two became very close, often taking walks through the woods together. Burroughs taught Whitman about nature, while Whitman exchanged thoughts on poetry. Soon after his relationship with Burroughs was established, nature began to creep into Whitman’s works. In 1867, when Whitman was attacked by critics, Burroughs released Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet and Person, in order to come to his defense. It is widely believed that Whitman himself coauthored this piece. Burroughs was able to go as far as to befriend the President of the United States. Burroughs heavily criticized nature writers who used nature as a tool to implement their personal beliefs. Theodore Roosevelt had the same beliefs, and contacted Burroughs (Sweet). A friendship was formed, and they eventually went on a trip together to Yellowstone National park, in 1903, which he discussed in his 1906 release Camping with Roosevelt. Some of Burroughs other fans and friends included Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, and Harvey Firestone. Associating with revolutionary and genius men gave Burroughs the widespread fame to release many works (Westbrook). It was his controversy with Henry David Thoreau, however, that may have given him the attention that he did not wish for.

Burroughs is considered by many to be second in the hierarchy of great nature writers of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Because Thoreau chronologically preceded Burroughs, he is considered the creator of the American nature essay, and thus the master. While Burroughs’ style was different and he popularized the nature essay, the comparisons are inevitable. Burroughs’ main argument with Thoreau was that Thoreau used nature as a tool to teach his philosophy. Burroughs saw nature writing more as an observer and felt it was disrespectful to manipulate it the way Thoreau did. “I really see very little of Thoreau in myself.... But my current is as strong in my own channel as Thoreau's is in his. Thoreau preaches and teaches always. I never preach or teach. I simply see and describe” (Buckley). Burroughs saw nature as something to observe and report, while he disagreed with Thoreau’s tendency to give the reader the “answer.” Burroughs dreaded comparisons to Thoreau and heavily criticized his work to create a separation. Due to Burroughs’ critiques, the opposite effect occurred and literary critics used his dislike to draw comparisons. In order to sound different, Burroughs used different rhetoric than Thoreau. While Thoreau aimed to teach a moral lesson in his works, Burroughs wrote about nature simply because it was beautiful and caused him pleasure. He did not have an agenda. Burroughs explains his point in his famous quote, "I paint the bird for its own sake, and for the pleasure that it affords me, and am annoyed at any lesson or moral twist" (Buckley).

While he wished to explore the questions of nature and transcendentalism, Burroughs only took it to a point, and relied on the reader to draw their own conclusions. He viewed nature as a ride, not as a tool for use. Instead of crediting Thoreau with any kind of inspiration, he listed his models as William Blake, Whitman, and Emerson. While trying to convey the power and beauty of nature, Thoreau overloads the reader with facts. Burroughs, however, uses imagery such as magic to explain the beauty. Burroughs uses this technique to avoid the issue of science, which goes hand in hand with listing facts. Burroughs takes Emerson’s point of view when thinking of religion and nature. He believes that like religion, nature is a gateway into higher meaning. He uses biblical language in his works to keep the connection with God vivid. While Thoreau and Burroughs both explore the questions of higher power, Thoreau puts his opinions in his writing, while Burroughs simply gives a platform and lets his audience answer their own questions. In changing his rhetoric, Burroughs’ revolutionized nature writing in the genre of Literary Natural History (Buckley).

Literary critic Ralph Black credits Burroughs with being the sole man to popularize this genre. In reusing the same formula, Philip Marshall Hicks commented, “"he did not create a new form of the natural history essay, but he established by constant use and sincere workmanship a form that previous writers had, in the main, employed only experimentally" (Buckley). He found his niche and stayed with it, where previous writers had not been able to master the style. To be considered in the genre of literary natural history, writers like Burroughs had to follow certain criteria. Literary natural history combines the writing of science with the pleasures of nature. The joining of science and nature would forever be a topic on Burroughs’ mind, as he explored it more as he aged. There are fundamental differences between a science writer and a natural history writer. The science writer will list facts about a species, and convey the species traits through studied facts. The natural history writer writes based on behavioral observations. In stead of stating that a species is typically a certain color, the nature writer will describe the fur of a squirrel as they observe it, and how it changes in the light. The natural history writer also includes himself in the scene, rather than separate. In a science essay, there is no evidence of the writer, but in the nature essay, it is common to read the author’s interactions with their surroundings. The use of the first person form is present. The author takes the reader on the same journey that he is experiencing, and does his best to narrate the observations. Audubon illustrates the use of the personal “I” in a nature scene: “Quite fearlessly he awaited my approach, looking upon me with undaunted eye. I fired and he fell. Before I reached him he was dead. With what delight did I survey the magnificent bird! Had the finest salmon ever pleased him as he did me? -- Never. I ran and presented him to my friend, with a pride which they alone can feel, who, like me, have devoted themselves from earliest childhood to such pursuits, and who have derived from them their first pleasures” (Buckley). Burroughs attempted to present nature as interactive with him, without sounding preachy by putting a spin on it

(Buckley).

Another required part to Literal Natural History writing was the influence of theology. God was seen to be in nature and the creator of nature. God was used as a reason to appreciate the beauty in the world. Writing nature essays would show ones appreciation for God. Writers argued that experiencing nature, and writing about it would enhance one’s body and soul. God was also used as a preservation tool. With theology in mind, writers argued that if one was truly faithful to God, then they would strive to preserve the nature in which he has created. When Darwinian Theory arrived, there was a large problem in theology involving itself in nature. Nature writers had to cope with the idea that science was replacing their beautiful words about higher powers controlling nature. Nature was discovered to be mercy to laws of physics and science. This conflicted with Burroughs’ views on nature and his interpretation of Emerson’s transcendentalism theory. Burroughs and many other writers conceded Darwin’s theory, but left room to acknowledge that some force was driving science. There could still be a higher power that was the architect for it all. Burroughs used many techniques to help apply this to his writing. By including documenting his journey exactly as he approached it, the reader was able to experience at the same time as Burroughs. Just as Burroughs encountered raw nature, the reader did too. Burroughs was able to not readjust his writing or make comment on it, leaving it simply as spur of the moment observation. This gave the reader a raw and first hand look, thus possibly seeing God’s work at hand, and avoiding science. To draw attention away from science and to focus on the natural world as he was used to writing about it, Burroughs acknowledged the dark and ugly sides of nature. This was something many writers before him did not do, because it was not as glamorous for the reader. He acknowledged situations such as a snake killing and eating defenseless baby birds. Burroughs, like a true nature writer, sees the beauty in the nasty and ugly things in nature. Burroughs even upsets the natural process and kills the snake, thus causing Burroughs to think even harder on the relationship that humans have with the natural world. The answers however are left for his readers to decide, for he strives at all times to avoid the preachy attitude he describes of Thoreau (Buckley).

While remaining objective in his writing, Burroughs still foresaw a situation with the environment that others neglected. Burroughs reached a level of popularity where his writings had large cultural power. He presents essays that showed the human intimacy with nature. One of his most defining hypotheses was how humans needed to find a healthy relationship with the natural world. America was becoming more industrial. Burroughs realized that when humans say the love nature, they must include all nature, which is industrial growth and science mixed together with classical theological beliefs. Burroughs saw the large strain that humans were putting on the land, which made it more important to discover what our relationship to the natural world should be. Burroughs claimed, “one cannot but reflect what a sucked orange the earth will be in the course of a few centuries. Our civilization is terribly expensive to all its natural resources” (Julianne Warren). He was astounded by how humans viewed nature as a resource that they could separate and divide. People bought and sold land as if it were possible to actually have ownership over nature. It frustrated him to see that people only viewed land as business and profit. Clearly our dependence on natural resource shows us that nature is more powerful than us, so why do we feel we can rule over it? Humans have developed the abilities to harness portions of nature, which makes it that much more important that we respect the relationship we have with the natural world. Burroughs asserted, “in short, in both cases, how to gain the whole world and not lose our own souls” (Julianne Warren). Burroughs argued the use of science and nature together would help people get a better understanding. Science by itself would ruin poetry and natural experience, however when together, science shows intellectual clarity while poetry and essays bring emotional clarity (Julianne Warren).

As Burroughs aged, he used science to further his thought and philosophies. In 1883, Burroughs read The Origin of Species and the Decent of Man. The author of both of these works, Charles Darwin, was thought of by Burroughs to be a complete genius in both the science field and in writing. “He is in his way as great and as remarkable as Shakespeare, and utilizes the knowledge of mankind in the same way. His power of organization is prodigious. He has the candor, the tranquility, the sincerity, the singleness of purpose that go with and are a promise of the highest achievement” (James Warren). His admiration for Darwin is clear and yet problematic. It makes little sense for a writer of natural history to be such a fan of a scientist. He gave Darwin the same praise that he gave Emerson and Whitman. This is because Burroughs not only enjoyed the progress of science, but also felt that Darwin was a skilled writer. Darwin’s works are what truly get Burroughs to focus on the relationship of science and literature. Burroughs studied Darwin, John Tyndall, Thomas Huxley, and Henri Bergson. These works made Burroughs seriously question his prior beliefs in transcendentalism and natural thinking. His works that were released later in his life were reflections of his confusion and personal struggle to work science and nature together (Westbrook). In Burroughs’ work Science and Literature, he credits Darwin with giving him the thought process. Burroughs uses Darwin’s ideas to stick to his point that God is a force behind science (James Warren).

John Burroughs will forever be known that the man who popularized the nineteenth century nature essay; much to his dismay, many will consider him a disciple of Thoreau. He fought for many years to show his differences, and sometimes even ignored similarities just so he would not have to acknowledge them (Buckley). An admirer of Blake, Whitman, and Emerson, Burroughs tried to stay true to the rules of natural history writing, but was too intrigued by the scientific revolution led by Darwin. While Burroughs legacy will live on through the John Burroughs Association, and the multiple schools that use his name, his true legacy may end up as the second most influential nature essayist. While some have said that Burroughs was simply trying to escape the shadow that Thoreau cast over him, his rebellion was deeper. John Burroughs was a true lover and admirer of nature. He saw nature not as a tool to propel his philosophical theories, but simply as something wonderful for us to enjoy and experience. After his death, his popularity declined and book sales were not as prominent. The science movement took over and the entire Literary Natural History movement suffered. People soon began to enjoy the outdoors once again. In today’s world, hikers and outdoor enthusiasts are at great numbers. With this resurgence the works of John Burroughs have come back out to reach a new audience of readers ready to take a journey with him (Westbrook).

Works Cited

Buckley, Michael G. "The Footsteps of Creative Energy: John Burroughs and Nineteenth-

Century Literary Natural History.” ATQ 21 Dec. 2007: 261-72.

Sweet, T. "John Burroughs and the Place of Nature." AMERICAN LITERATURE. 79.1 (2007):

179-181.

Warren, James P. “John Burroughs and the Scientific Imagination.” ATQ 21 Dec. 2007: 235-47.

Warren, Julianne L. “Alienation or Intimacy?: The Roles of Science in the Cultural Narratives of

Gifford Pinchot and John Burroughs” ATQ 21 Dec. 2007: 249-59.

Westbrook, Perry D. “John Burroughs.” American National Biography Online. Feb. 2000.

Oxford University. 6 Apr. 2009. <http://www.anb.org/articles/16/16-00231.html>.