3. The Alphabet (VARF)

Aa Ää Bb Cc Dd Ee Ëë Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Öö Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Üü Vv Yy Zz

In the Arahau alphabet there are 27 letters (varfd), among them 10 represent vowels (nraarf) and 17 are for consonants (nraard).

The system of consonants is pretty simple and characterized by the absence of hushing sounds. There’s the only affricate known, that is “c” [ts]. The letter “h” is pronounced harder than the English pharyngeal one and is closer to the Russian dorsal [kh]. At the periphery there is a half-vowel labial [w] and [‘] (that is the guttural stop) as well as soft consonants [t’], [g’] and even [f’] and [r’]. But they are not obligatory and used for the delicate differences in meaning. Gemination of consonants is also used, including the position in the beginning of a word.

In addition to 10 pure vowels the phonological system of vocalism includes the polyphtongs (nraazoo):

au, ao, ae, ai, ou, oe, oi, oa, ei, ea

10 labial diphthongs (triphthongs), being used primarily for constructing plural forms:

uau, uao, uae, uai, uou, uoe, uoi, uoa, uei, uea

and labial diphthongs which are optional (except the diphthong ‘uo’, which performs the function of ‘o’ - “name”) and are used for the specification of meaning:

ua, uo, ue, ui (uä [üä], uö [üö], uë [üë], uy).

Diphthongs in Arahau (except for the labial) - are independent sounds, which can’t be divided into simple sounds.The phonemes i (in diphthongs) and j sound differently. For example, like in the Russian words “pomoy” (помой) and “pomoi” (помои); “zayka” (зайка) and “zaika” (заика).

As it’s seen, the most widely used sounds in polyphthongs are ‘a’ and ‘o’, while the sound ‘e’ is involved less. ‘i’ is not represented here as in the vowel hierarchy the palatal element of vowels is significant while ‘i’ is palatalized by definition. The sound ‘u’ in diphthongs and triphthongs performs the specifying function. Triphthongs is a specific trait of Arahau. They are needed to form the plurative in words where there are diphthongs: a - a human being, aa - people, ai - a stone, uai - stones. In triphthongs “u” is read as half vowel [w]: uai [wai].

Labial diphthongs ua, uo, ue, ui are optional and used to specify the meaning: Taras < Ta-ras - “I sing”, T-uara-s - “I’m your brother” (‘a’ is the indicator for the class of people and ‘u’ is a specifying labial), tra-s - “to hear”; f-uara - “there, where is the brother”, fa-ra < fa-r-a - “a home for a human being”.

Single vowels are represented by the opposition "hard - soft”: a-ä, o-ö, ë-e, y-i. Here we must say that among the vowels there are no exotic sounds. Maybe y [ɨ], corresponding the Russian ы and ë [je], is not very common as it’s thinner and softer than “e” reminding of the Russian “э”. Compare: "Не принял мер” (ë) and "Не принял мэр” (е).

Phonological system of vowels in Arahau recalls a similar scheme in the Finnish language. Front vowels (üä, üö etc.) are used in diphthongs. There are long umlaut-like ää, öö, üü. Expressively painted expressions can contain "marginal diphthongs” - those including 'y'. They are common for oaths and curses: sya / sy - 'he - loathsome', tyfry - 'he overlooked', yj [ый] - 'bitch', ky / ay - ‘tomcat’, yl - ‘strange thing’ (gadget), yd - 'greenhorn', yi [ыи] - 'stump', 'old jerk'.

Sounds in Arahau have different both heterogeneous and semantic statuses. Each letter in this language is endowed with a certain set of meanings. However, there are letters falling out of this series. For example , the letters r, h and n play a secondary role . Among vowels “o” has extremely truncated meaning, because this sound is destined to cut in between excessive accumulations of consonants or to differentiate them to avoid semantic confusion. This is, in fact, a silent vowel (except the cases when it is in a number of prefixes in the beginning of the sentence) . Compare: arf - left hand , arof - genocide (mass death).

The priority of vowels. Unlike most languages ​​(except Afrasian) vowels and consonants in Arahau are recognized to have some diametrically opposite role. They complement and, at the same time, contradict each other like yin and yang in Taoism. And the vowels (as "seeds of firstborn sounds") are considered to have a priority in this phonological philosophy. They are given the right to name objects and all that exists in this world. There is nothing under the sun, that could not get its name in Arahau. Consonants merely specify the sense.

Consonants and vowels permeate each other, but do not mix. This system is, in essence, a mirror image of the Arabic language, in which, on the contrary, the consonants are recognized to have the dominant role with vowels, clarifying the meaning . In the Semitic languages root of the verb and verbal name consists of three consonants, the main carriers dictionary meaning, while the vowel, as well as suffixes, prefixes and infixes clarify the meaning or convey grammatical category. Compare: Arabic : kataba - he wrote , kutiba - written , ā-ktaba - he has forced to write, kātib - writing, kitāb - letter, ma-ktab - school (space for writing) . And here the same words in Arahau : svarf - he wrote , toesvarf - he has forced to write , kvarf - writer (who writes), varf - letter , favarf - school (letters home).

It may seem that everything is upside down in Arahau even in comparison with a specific language like Arabic. We can say that in Arahau nouns and verbs behave as prefixes, suffixes and inflections ... While grammatical formants in Arahau mimic crushed roots of words . This perception arises under the pressure of the Indo-European tradition. Compare the word scheme t-s-rg (he-impact-finger), tasarg - he counts, tusuurg - he exists at the expense of the right paw claws, tisirg - he has a newspaper, teserg - he makes the fate. Change of vowels in the word does not lead to the change in grammatical forms, as it does in the Arabic language, but to the emergence of new concepts due to such a kind of sense cases . Few of those who have just begun learning Arahau are able to guess that the word kafrê (astronomer) and gasê (Astronomy) are cognate ones (ê means 'sky').

In Russian consonants are more important than vowels. For example, if you write the names of Russian writers without vowels (Пшкн, Шлхв, Лрмнтв, Тлстй), you can guess who they are. But if we leave vowels only it would be impossible to decode the words (Уи, Ооо, Еоо, Оо).

Diacritics in Arahau - it is diaeresis (to mark soft vowels ä, ö, ü, ë), apostrophe, marking soft consonants (eg. k' [кь]) , acute accent (tonic accent - for designation of the verb tenses - á, í, ú...). Diphthongs and triphthongs as well as umlaut and palatal vowels (ǘ = ű = ü') can be labeled this way. And the last option is the preferred notation (ä', ö', ë'), in this case, the apostrophe is used to denote a quasi-tonic accent .

In dictionaries and textbooks two more kinds of diacritics are used - crown or brevis (mainly for ă, ŏ), and circumflex (â, ô, î, ê, û). Brevis is placed over the vowel that does not matter: for example, farfŏr - kingdom, farf - the royal palace; ŏ is placed here to distinguish it from another word farfr - prison (home of separation) .

Root vowels are designated with Circumflex: gasâr - Anatomy, gasîr - Botany (kasîr - nerd), gasûr - zoology, where â (man), î (plant), û (animal) are the roots of words.

Phonology

Phonetic system (Gasanrei) of Arahau is grammaticalized and contains several sublevels. For example, pronouns use sounds that are not used in other parts of speech. Only in pronouns (see Pronouns) 26 apical consonants are optionally used (these are mainly affricates) marking the gender, number and exclusivity / inclusiveness .

There are 17 basic consonants in Arahau (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, z), which are pronounced the same way as in Latin and it is not difficult to learn. There are 20 irregular consonants which do not transmit independent grammatical forms (geminates are used to display the plural, and palatal - to transfer the feminine gender). However, some dual sounds (geminates) -rr- and -ss- have an independent status - in the first usage it is a formant of assimilation, while the second usage is the way of formation of verbs burdened with modal elements.

The subgroup of "irregular" includes 27 of such specific consonants as previbrants (rb, rc, rd, rf, rg, rh, rk, rl, rm, rn, rp, rt, rz), postvibrants (br, cr, dr, fr , gr, hr, kr, mr, nr, pr, tr, zr) and postlabials (bl, dl, kl, pl).

Altogether Arahau contains 90 consonants.

It’s interesting, that in Sanskrit they distinguish previbrating (in writing they are expressed with the special diacritics 'reph' क्र rka) and postvibrating (in writing they are transmitted with the diacritics 'ra - phala' र्क kra) sounds.

Whether to consider these 27 sounds indivisible or complex? I think it is all about phoneme-significant character of Arahau. If the vibrants or labials represent individual word roots or indivisible grammatical markers, that means that they have the status of a separate phoneme. For example, in Arahau such combinations as sr, gl are possible, but they are not considered separate phonemes because these clusters do not transmit independent values. Compare: kl 'under'; gl ‘that, which is not', 'which is absent'.

The maximum number of possible vowels in Arahau is 96. It also raises a dilemma - whether to consider diphthongs, triphthongs and “tense vowels” independent vowels. As you know, Arahau tense vowels are marked with the acute. They are used to refer to the Irreal (past-future) tense.

Fonostatistic experiments conducted by the author revealed that the consonant ratio (the ratio of consonants to vowels in speech) in Arahau is slightly lower than that in the Russian language: for Arahau - 1.36 and for the Russian language - 1.38. The largest consonant ratio (1.87) has been observed by researchers in the Itelmen language of Kamchatka (some Germanic languages are approaching this index). The higher the consonant ratio, the more clusters of consonants are there in the studied words . For example, the consonant ratio of melodic Polynesian languages ​​is ~ 0.5 .

With regard to all the sounds, in the Russian language consonants are 6 times bigger in number than vowels, in Spanish - 4 times, in English - 2 (excluding poliphthongs), in French - 1.25 times. In the contrary in Arahau vowels outnumber consonants, so consonant ratio is 0.94 (in Danish - 0.86 - 20 consonants and 23 vowels).

Phonotactics

The structure of words is uneven: there can occur clusters of consonants, both at the beginning and at the end . Typically cccvccc* is the maximum cluster, but the number of consonants may be higher, such as in the word aldkvar (a gene). The load on consonant groups increases due to frequent use of grammaticalized overtones -l- and -r-. Consonant clusters in Arahau should not be excessive.

As a rule, the boundaries of syllables and morphemes, consisting mostly of single sounds are not the same:

Syllable division : U-sa-blo-ra-lopl

Morphemic division : Us-a-blor-al-opl (Is - man - the measure - of things - all > Man is the measure of all things). Sentence is divided into parts of speech and auxiliary formants (if there are any) - prefixes, suffixes, particles.

Though its comparative euphony, in Arahau it is difficult to divide a word into syllables (incidentally, this problem appears also in the Russian language : "стро-и-тель-ство", "стро-и-те-льство"). However, the division into syllables in Arahau is very important. If morphemes do not coincide with syllables and there can be an ambiguity of interpretation (this is known as re-expansion or metanalysis), at the boundaries of morphemes the “overtone” 'u' is inserted:

Ta-ras (“I am singing"); T-ara-s > T-uara-s ("We’re friends with you" ); T-ar-as > T-ar-uas ("My giant is thinking"), Tra-s (“To hear”). Another example : Ti-fra-s - "I (tree) can see you"; T-ifr-as - “My hollow is thinking”. The first option is considered right, and in the second case one should write T-uifr-as. Or here's another: fr-uafr “eye can see”, but frafr - "to overlook all the eyes"

The letter 'u' separates a consonant from a syllable and attaches it to the next one, being essentially a "forced divisor of syllables". The important function of 'u' [w] is to signal that the syllable structure is changed, and thus changed the position significance of consonant formants.

At morphemic seams Arahau sounds are very sensitive to their surroundings .

For example, you can not connect the letter t (Turning Case, meaning 'become', 'turned into’') and r (abstraction formant; preposition 'for') , as there is a sound tr ('ear'). Therefore between them dumb vowels (a, o) are inserted: t + r = tŏr / t + r = tăr ('turned to') .

You can not insert a silent 'o' in the beginning of a word, as particles and function words contain the same vowel (and they are placed at the beginning of a word only) . For example, you can not write Go-hus meaning "That, that exists" because Go means ‘that’ (it is correct to write "that, that exists" as G-us; Go-hus - “That exists”). Some particular attention should be paid to the compatibility of r & l with neighboring consonants. For example, k + l is impossible as there is a combination of kl ('under’) . But the cluster g+ l is allowed, since gl doesn’t have an individual interpretation.

The first thing newcomers face when constructing phrases in Arahau is the problem of excess accumulation of consonants. For example, the first-person indicator t- can’t be said as well as it is impossible to say t-fr-s (I see you) without some difficulty. This issue is resolved by "silent vowels " (though it would be better to talk about "neutral vowels" because in fact they are spoken, but do not carry the main semantic load). At the first look it seems to be a deviation from the main postulate of the Arahau language, in which each vowel (in contrast to the consonants) means specific phenomenon, object or creature. However, with this method some other principle - the principle of duality - has been refined and strengthened in Arahau. The “Dumb vowels" in this language are two - ă and ŏ (the first vowel is one of the key sounds, while the second one is generally limited in usage and apart from the noun 'name' and the verb 'to feel '' does not mean anything more).

The main thing here is to decide whether to put ă or ŏ. The situation may be complicated due to the fact that ŏ is used in auxiliary prefixes where this letter is not optional, but necessary. A similar problem occurs when using -r- to darken the sense of a word, when a deeper meaning is assigned to the word. After all, this sound is used in the construction of the so-called " Somatic categories " (see Derivation).

Let’s take a look at the example.

The formation of the word God - Anen (literally, "man sitting in the sky") requires the ending -r (indicator of abstraction). However, at this morpheme seam we must insert ŏ (Anen + r = Anenor). Otherwise An-e-nr would be treated as "the old man in the Heaven says".

There are cases when in the contrary to the rules we put ă instead of ŏ . Suppose we need to form the word 'song' (that that is sung) . By writing g-ras, we automatically obtain a different meaning gra-s ('your temple'; 'hit in the head') . If we write gŏras (Go-ras - “What are they singing ?"), then there is a risk of falling into the trap again. Therefore, in order to avoid ambiguity, it is best to write găras. Although, to tell the truth, even in this case someone can read it as g-ara-s ('that that is your brother'). It’s interesting that guras would mean 'howl', giras and gäras - “rustle”, “rustling”. But there may be an involuntary recombination g-ira-s ('that that is your bread'), g-ura-s ('that that is your pet'). To avoid misunderstandings (in extreme cases where it is important to achieve precision of thought) reduplication is used: guguras - 'howl', gigiras and gägäras - 'rustle', ‘rustling’.

When doing recombination one should remember that the expiratory accent falls primarily on the verb, if there is no, then - on the main noun (auxiliary words are always unstressed) . Thus gurAs - 'howl' and gUras - 'that that is your pet'.

In addition to the "forced syllable divider” 'u', it is proposed to allow the combinations of hC, Ch to distinguish morphemic word boundaries as well.

Another important note - the same vowels occur usually within one morpheme: ama-g-uze (a flight of a bird), not umuguze; fragu (an eye of a beast), not frugu (fr-ugu - an eye of a lion). Exceptions are stative verbs, in which nouns incorporate between sonorous sounds: unin - 'an animal is sitting on a tree."

Declensional formants and locatives (-g, -t-, -p-) are often used as boundaries between words. For this purpose they are put on morphemic seams, although without cases the sense would be understandable (Fahamal-k-u - “a house has fallen on the animal”).

Pronouns delimit not the morphemes but entire complexes, in which letters are written without spaces.

Syncretism

In Arahau there are only two parts of speech - a noun and a verb. Active verb can not perform the function of nouns, but some nouns (among them in Arahau there are pronouns, stative verbs, numerals, interjections) can. There is a very limited number of single-consonant formants acting as adjectives (gradations of size, speed and vitality), as well as pseudo-participles of active and passive voice.

Arahau is characterized by the blurred boundaries between traditionally allocated parts of speech. And, despite the fact that there is a clearly distinguished name and verb, one part of speech can turn to another depending on the word order in a sentence and merged formants: fra - an eye, to look; i - a tree, a plant, es - to do, ges - transport, kes - a creator, a wizard. Synonymy is developed as homonymy: a ring - argapl, aezarg; wind - prü, nej. Eclecticism, when distinguishing which part of speech the word belongs to is possible only from the context or the strict word order in a sentence (SVO)** is also well-developed.

The most frequent case of transposition is the verbalization of names (the transition of a noun into the verb category). There is also a notable example - the use of the feminine to demote the name class, the verb aspect, and vice versa, the use of the plurative to increase "semantic degree”: e - sky, ee - space, ej - air.

All words except the verb can denote any part of speech depending on what position they occupy in the sentence: Ta-fr-i - “I-see-tree”; I-fra-t - “Tree-sees-me"; Fra-ti - “Eye-becomes-tree" (Eye stiffens).

Active system

Arahau with its structure is a language of active structural typology. Active system is manifested in the fact that it is not the subject and object that are stood out (there are no nominative and accusative case in Arahau), but the bearer of the action (active noun) and the noun, perceiving that action (active and inactive basis).

Another manifestation of the active system is the non-proliferation of passive constructions. For example, it is impossible to say in Arahau "The house that was built by people collapsed", one should say "House fell, and (that) people built it," or "People were building a house and it fell» - Aahesfacargamal. The second option is preferable, because by the rules of Arahau active animate nouns must precede passive inanimate, to which the action is directed. Exception - when objects themselves are action bearers: "The house that was built by people pressed animals" - "The house fell on the animals and the people built it» (Fahamaluu-c-aahesoh). The copulative acts here as a formant of complementarity, additionality.

In Arahau verbs are divided not into transitive and intransitive, but into active and stative. When translated into Arahau passive constructions are transformed into active. For example, the phrase "Husband is brought by the mother" - in "The mother brought her husband» (Kaj-uaman-vad); "The child was scared at a cat” (Adorauksurfaj) - in "A cat frightened the child” (Urfajrausad).

As in most languages ​​of the active system, in Arahau there is the third type of emotional perception verbs (affectives). They are based on somatic categories (fra - 'eye', 'watch'; tra - 'ear', 'hear', etc.).

Possessive structures, when verbs are replaced with nouns in the genitive case, are possible: 'the bird flies' - uzehama (uzme, uzemu) 'the flight of the bird' - amaguze.

Active system of Arahau is evident in the important role of verbal valence, uncertainty of the third person, the opposition of exclusive and inclusive in pronouns, availability of the possessive category in the name with underdeveloped cases and optional plurality of inanimate nouns. In addition, there are ways to convert Arahau active verbs into stative and vice versa, there are no passive voice structures and category of the adjective (it is replaced with stative verbs), undeveloped category of time.

There are, however, some differences from the classical active languages ​​(Guarani, Na-Dene, Sioux): the possibility of verbal constructions with the verb 'to have', the lack of verbs with different roots opposed according to the number of participants of the process (cf. Ainu 'arpa is 'going' - paye '(they) are going', raike 'they kill one' - ronnu 'they kill many').

In order to understand the feature which distinguishes the Arahau language, for example, from the Paleo-Asiatic, Caucasian and Chinese systems, let’s consider a number of examples.

In the Inuit language:

Аңйаңлъа-рахки-γа-ку-кут - "Boat-make-quickly-now-we";

in Arahau - Taa-mnes-izü (infixes m and n indicate the speed and immediacy aspects; izü - boat <tree in water).

In Aleut language:

Укухта-ту-джьа-лъи-на-γулаq - “To see even didn’t want him I"

In Arahau: to-tlaussafr-s, or to-tlausfra-s, (variability is due to the complex verb "I do not want to see", which can be expressed through the noun 'eye' or through modal structure vSSv).

In Adyghe language:

Сы-вэ-жэ - "I can see you"; in Arahau - Tfras

Вы-сэ-шэ - “You I drive"; in Arahau - T-aman-s

In Kabardian:

Ды-хэ-γэ-hэ-н - "Together with someone forced to go inside something", and in Arahau - T-oes-fu-p-abl (T-oessaf-p-abl, T-oesse-p-fua-bl).

In Chinese:

Bái mă chī căo - “White horse eats grass" and in Arahau - Umum-goe-huls-ij

Chī căo de mă - «Eating grass horse"; in Arahau - Ok-umum-c-uls-ij (literally "horse that eats grass").

Frame structure

Frame structure in Arahau is subject-object confixes t ... s (I ... to you) and s ... t (You ... me) with two series of personal indicators. Reflexive indicator ... k (... (he/she/itself) is always expressed as a suffix (final position).

Pronouns in Arahau play a pronounced role - to fix the beginning and end of a word (an uninterrupted continuum of letters).

Often, the frame structure makes it possible to appear palindromic (concentric) schemes. In Arahau it is possible to form structures in which pronouns, grouped around the verb constitute some likeness of a palindrome: Ta-l-at «I'll kill myself!», Taaj-afra-jaat «They (women) can see them (women)."

Arahau is a verb-centric language in which the verb is the most difficult part of speech and occupies the central part of the sentence. In the sentence the active verb is distinguished by the indicator -s (us - to exist, as - to know). As in English, nouns are not used without a verb (except proverbs and verbal expression).

"Your son does not like us" - You (active) son does not like we (inactive) - S-ado-l-azaj-aat.

Apparently, there are no regular palindromes as methods of derivation in natural languages​​. Although, for example, linguistic palindromes may appear in the Ingush language: w-аха-w 'left (he)' y-аха-y 'left (she)'. "Here the same indicator of class of names (w, y) is used twice (mirror-like as confixes) in verb forms of non-derivative verbs.

In German there is the frame structure: modal and semantic verb (or verb and its detachable prefix) are "frame" within which are placed all the other members of the sentence (except the words standing in the first position). Example: Ich habe den Wagen in Deutschland gekauft («I bought this car in Germany"); here "frame” is 'habe...gekauft'.

The morphological structure of the word in the Chukchi language can be considered concentric:

та-ра.ңы-к - 'to build a house' (the 1st confix is verbalizer; я.ра'.ңы “house”)

ры-та-ра.ң-авы-к - 'to force to build a house' (the 2nd confix - causative)

т-ра-н-та-ра.ң-авы-ңы-ркы-н - 'I want to make him build a house' (the third confix - desideratum).

Agglutination

Arahau is an agglutinative language. Hiatus is not allowed (at the junction between vowels hypothetic -h- is inserted; previously there was a rule to insert -h- in odd syllables, and - n- in even ones; now this rule is used only when “arahauzing” proper names), but there may be clusters of consonants.

Polysynthetism

Polysynthetism with widespread incorporating formants (as in paleo-asiatic and some other languages) is peculiar for Arahau. Roughly speaking, Polysynthetism is the ability to express a large number of values ​​with the minimum number of words. This phenomenon can be considered productive non-syllable-building concatenation (from Latin concatenatio 'attaching with chains'). Incorporation - implementation of the dependent word into the main one.

Some people think that if you write all the words together, then it will be polysynthetism . But it is not. That's a phrase from the Russian language, written thus: "Накапейкучернил". It can be interpreted as "На копейку чернил" and "На-ка пей, кучер Нил" (or "Помашинам" - "Помаши нам" and "По машинам"). Reading options arise from the fact that the boundaries of words in the Russian language is not always clearly marked. In Arahau such morpheme and word boundaries are very important. They are defined by the rigid word order in the sentence (the central position of the verb, which is marked by the sound-s-) and restrictions on combinations of sounds in the adjacent morphemes.

Complex sentences are formed by means of subordination and coordination connective words. The most commonly used cŏ (and),-rr-(as, like),-r-(for). S-es-kl-ay-rg - «He rushed to escape from that evil man"; Go-s-és-klo-lus-orf - «That, that he started to run, is not true"; Tla-fra-rra-boro-nüspl - «He did not notice how fast the time has expired."

Peculiarities of the syntax

It is not the beginning and the end, but the centre and the periphery that are opposed in Arahau. While in Russian a sentence is opposed to a word, in Arahau a word is incorporated in a sentence.

The basic concept of Arahau is duration (a polysynthetic complex in which stem letters are attached to each other agglutinatively without spaces).

Morphemes that form words in Arahau are called stems. While in Russian words are written with spaces, it is periods that are separately spaced in Arahau (polysynthetic complexes with a verb in the middle, nouns and two pronouns on the edges)***. The thing that is called in Russian a sentence, in Arahau is called a syntagm (several simple and/or polysynthetic complexes forming a single statement). As a rule a syntagm consists of compound and complex sentences or sentences with more than two pronouns.

The continuity of letter writing in Arahau is not unlimited. a) a polysynthetic complex can include only two pronouns (the actor is placed in the beginning and the receiver - in the end). When the third person appears, the second polysynthetic complex is formed after the space. The complex is marked with the union “c-/co-” (and) or the demonstrative pronoun “ho-/oh-” (this).

Let's look at a more complex structure with six "roles" (in this case, we note that such a congestion of sense is a rarity even for the Russian language). Let’s translate into Arahau the sentence "In the forest a man engraves on the bark with a small piece of coal a letter for the beloved woman." We have to break the statement into three parts: Ahaesvarft 'tazajs' сespiitoazaidkougi, or with a transcript A-haes-varf-taj t-azaj-ajs с-es-pii-toazaid-kougi. The first part just sounds like "A man cuts out a letter for the woman» (v-arf - 'that the left hand does’). The second - "He loves her” (azaj here acts as a verb, even without the verbal indicator -s), and the third - "He does this in the forest with a small piece of coal on the bark» (oa-z-ai-d = + black + stone + small > 'a small piece of coal', ou-gi = body of the tree > 'bark', 'bark' may sound like irt by analogy with the art - 'chest'). Here t’ < taj; s' < saj.

The case when this long sentence is formed with only two blocks is also possible: Okahaesvarftaj-c-azaj ohespiitoazaidkougi.

It is interesting, that in the Adyghe language polypersonal verbs are possible, while the pronoun clitics form a cluster of prefixes: п-ф-е-с-тыгъ (his-for.you-him-I-gave). In Arahau such structures are not used, but are possible in principle in the scheme of doubling the personal categories:T-s-ois-s-oro-s (I-him-give-him-for-you). Most often this syntagm is divided into several periods: T-ois oh-us-oro-s (I-give- [him] it-is-for-you).

In Georgian transitive verbs agree with the subject and the object: Deda me m-zrdi-s - “Mother brings me up" (literally, Mother me-me-brings-up-she); Deda šen g-zrdi-s - “Mother brings you up”

By the way, the Hebrew language is characterized by the absence of long periods; coherent story consists of a series of short sentences, conjugated between each other with a connective word “'and'; clauses keep the independent status in this structure and are weakly bound with the connective word 'ašer (which) or are not bound at all. For example, "The man I saw" sounds as: "A person that I saw him," or "Man I saw him."

b) The duration is interrupted with the expressiveness of speech (references, questions in dialogues, proverbs, stylistic device in poems).

– Vanë! – Tatrsaj, Masccë. ([татрсь маше]) – RotarkäsyrgavSasccë? – Vo? – Sasccëhisezoegarous. – Taus, taus, Masccë, notaj? – Tajus. Taus, ttoilbsokaroRubl. – Nar, lë! Taisbajaharkaarf. – Nara, gë. – Bo? – Hokarden. – Naranarrr!

- John! - I hear you, Mary. - Are you going to booze up at Sasha’s tomorrow? - Why? - Sasha's birthday. - Yes, of course. Mary, are you? - I am so; by the way, we chip in 100 roubles. - Oh, the trouble is I can spend only 50 at the moment - Okay. - What time? - At five o'clock in the evening. - Rah!

c) The duration interrupts inset words, including references: Hes, Kaazarë! - "To work, comrades!", Ord, usbobrouglaz - "Indeed, he was not a great mind".

Participles are replaced with possessive schemes, structures with connective words or verbs: "The rain, pouring down out of town, stopped” - Pre-rk-fa-dl-c-ana (It was raining outside the town and it stopped), Pregarkana (rain stopped pouring), Ko- pre-hana-c-ark (who-rain-stopped-and-was-pouring> The rain had stopped, which was pouring).

Verbal adverbs are replaced with verbs accompanied with the connective word 'and': "Man walked rejoicing” - Aharkcës (literally, man walked and rejoiced).

Adjectives and adverbs are replaced with possessive structures of nouns or through the formant of joint action 'b' (with, together): "The boy ran quickly” - Ad-g-aja-mama (literally, The boy of speed ran) or Ad-b-aja-mama (Boy with a speed ran).

In Arahau there is no infinitive. In dictionaries, this form is replaced with the verb in the third person: is - 'have' (although the meaning is 'he has'). In Arahau the verb is not conjugated by persons, numbers, and tenses. But there are aspects, modes, compound verbs, mood. In the verb the intransitiveness can be expressed (by inclusion of return formant -k-) as well as the negative quality (formant of negativity -l-), intensity z-, diminutivity of action -d.

Peculiarities of Punctuation

Punctuation in Arahau has some peculiarities. The question mark can not be used if the auxiliary interrogative prefix Ro- is applied: «Rotáfrs» - “Will we see each other?”, but «Táfrs?» with the same meaning.

Notes

* Small letters in such reductions are any consonants (c) and any vowels (v). Capital letters transmit Arahau specific sounds (eg, vLS transmits syllabic structure of active verbs - uls, als, ils, etc.)

** S - Subject, V - Verb, O - Object.

*** It is interesting that Francis Lieber in the 19th century suggested to call the expressing of a whole composition with a single word as holophrasis.