Apotropaic Identification

At first glance figure 1 is in the shape of a double 'V', but with a line linking their tops, or two rotated double 'D' symbols. They look about the right size for a medieval mason's mark however it is unusual in that, it uses curved lines in its form. It looks rather like a shield within a shield.

At Norton Priory in Cheshire, we also have a variation upon the 'VV' 'Virgo Virginum (Virgin of Virgins)', or Marian Symbol, invoking the protection of the Virgin Mary, because as you will see in the photograph below, it is linked at the top between the two 'V's, with a line, whereas the symbol at Eltham is linked between both the 'V's top terminals. Usually they are formed from just two 'V's which criss cross each other.

At Norton Priory they appear upon stones which form a window’s arch, i.e. upon the stone tracery, a window being an obvious weak point for evil to enter a building.

Due to the similar form of the symbol at Eltham Palace, to those at Norton Priory, and the fact that it appears next to the doorway into the Great Hall, another weak spot where evil forces might enter, it most likely represents an alternative form of the Marian or ‘VV’ symbol, and invokes the protection of the Virgin of Virgins, Mary Mother of God.

This is the most likely identification, although it may also have an extra connotation of protecting shields, because its shape is certainly reminiscent of medieval shields. Eltham Palace was a Royal residence and a number of jousting tournaments were held there in the medieval period.

The Apotropaic marks labelled Figures 2, 3 and 4, inside Eltham Palace’s Great Hall, are protective graffiti, and must have been added at some point in the palace’s history.

Fig 2 is known as the 'Cross of Endlessness', which symbolises eternity, but also protection. It is a demon trap because the lines are endless, and it is thought that any evil spirits / entities, in the past, would become transfixed upon it, as if it were a puzzle for the whole of time.

Fig 4 represents 'Ave Maria', the Latin for Hail Mary, the traditional Catholic Prayer for the intercession of the Virgin, so therefore invokes her protection. You will see how the symbol represents the letter 'A', 'V' and 'M', in my diagram below.

Fig 3 is both AVM 'Ave Maria' and VV, 'Virgo Virginum', again both invoking the protection of the Virgin, Mother of Christ, see my diagram below.

Both Fig 3 and 4 being upon the same line gives the verbal expression to the reader who understands Latin and the symbols for these expressions / prayers: "Ave Maria Virgo Virginum Ave Maria" translating as "Hail Mary, Virgin of Virgins, Hail Mary!"

This may have been added in this coded form by a Catholic visitor to the Palace when Catholicism was outlawed in England, to hide their true religious belief and also as secret ritual protective graffiti which only those who understood Latin and the Catholic faith would understand.

At some point since its carving it has been marked out in black paint to give the ritual protection graffiti more prominence.

It is interesting to note that this type of Cross and this symbolic coded Catholic Prayer, have been grouped together at Eltham Palace, does the Cross of Endlessness and its four triangles, actually in fact crudely represent the crucifixion of Christ with four nails, and possibly the square representing his body or heart?

For this Cross to be above that phrase it most likely represents the Crucifix, and hence Christ and hence asks for His protection as well.

A New World Protection Symbol:

Ontario, Canada

Greg Polan from Ontario in Canada contacted me regarding the shape of owl holes which appear upon many timber barns in both American and Canada. He sent me an image of a barn with these owl holes in Sidney Township in Hastings County, Ontario, Canada. The above photograph has been reproduced with his permission.

Greg said that:-

“I read your article on protective symbols with interest.

In Ontario, and in fact in several north east states in the United States, the attached symbol is found cut-out high-up in the gables of some of the oldest barns. I’ve been researching this for over a year now, and it seems that this particular symbol remains enigmatic and forgotten over time. No one seems to know why this symbol was chosen. Functionally, these openings serve as owl holes, pigeon holes, or simply for ventilation, but the choice of symbol remains a mystery. Likely a protective symbol important to a specific immigrant group … not sure which one.

In Ontario, these barns were erected by early European immigrant settlers in the 1800’s and this particular symbol disappeared in barns erected after 1900.

Have you come across this particular symbol in your travels?”

In reply, I identified this owl hole on this barn as a protective device stemming from the 'Cross of Endlessness'. The endless cross symbolises eternity, but also protection, and of course, the owl hole also serves a physical function, i.e. to allow owls access to the barn to protect the stored crops from vermin. In England, we also have owl holes on barns, where they haven't been converted into homes.

The outline form of this cross forms a never-ending line, and other shapes which are formed from a never-ending line were used as demon traps, to entrap any evil spirit or demon, etc, trying to enter a building, because it is thought that an evil entity would become infatuated with the puzzle, and end up transfixed forever.

If you think how this protective device was created, i.e. how the carpenter marked it out, ready to cut out the wood, to form the owl hole, you will see they would have had to draw an endless line, then cut out the shape in the wood, to form the hole, see the diagrams below. Yes it has weathered, and the lines to the triangles at each point of the diamond or square, are open to the triangles, but they still strictly follow the endless line necessary for a demon trap.

An added bonus is the owl, owls have much symbolism throughout history; one such association is with Minerva, a Roman Goddess, who was also the Goddess of War.

Also due to this cross symbol representing eternity, this may also infer a prayer that the barn will not burn down, and will survive forever?

Obviously in this case we have to envisage the carpenter, and how he made the opening, and why it is protective, and then we see his process and what he marked out before he cut out the owl hole, this may give the protective device more power too. Please see my diagram below.

Another aspect of it is that it forms a cross, indicative of Christian and therefore God's protection, because as you will see in the article above, the exact same shape was carved into a stone in the 15th century Great Hall of Eltham Palace in London.

At Eltham Palace the ‘Cross of Endlessness’ is carved above a coded Catholic Prayer representing “Ave Maria Virgo Virginum Ave Maria” or “Hail Mary Virgin of Virgins Hail Mary”, which invokes the protection of the Virgin Mary for the building and indoor space. With the cross being above this Catholic Prayer it must represent Christ and therefore as well as being a demon trap invokes the protection of God and Christianity.

Therefore the symbol found on these New World timber barns are a protective device used to invoke the power of protection from Christ and the Crucifix, for the building and its occupants, from any evil or pagan forces existing in the surrounding outside world.

It was most likely brought to the New World with settlers from Christian Europe, and reproduced there specifically for spiritual protection, and its true purpose hidden from its primary function as an opening for owls and ventilation.

Greg also added after identification that:-

“Perhaps an Interesting example of cultural transference from the Old World to the New? There was a University of Toronto academic named Thomas McIlwraith who wrote an academic paper on these barn crosses in an American publication called Material Culture (1981 I believe). It was his conclusion that this symbol in North America was limited to wooden barns rather than other buildings in the 19th century and disappeared around 1900 from new barn construction. He referred to the symbol as a diamond cross but he reached no conclusion on origin or purpose.

What I find as interesting as the possible purpose and function is the fact that they have already been forgotten in time … they are less than 200 years old in North America. I’ve found variants of the same design, and in groupings of one, two, three, and four (less common). I’m not sure if the number of cut-outs on a barn mean anything. I wonder what the carpenter who made them referred to them as?”

A Complicated Combined Witch Mark:

An Incomplete Pentagram, The Virgin Mary, Virgo Virginum, and Ave Maria:

Borwick Hall, Lancashire, UK

Holly Blackwell from Lancashire contacted me after reading my article about protective devices and witch marks online, and wondered if I could help, because her brother in law, Philip Blackwell, who works at Borwick Hall, had found a witch mark there, and hadn’t seen any similar examples after searching online, to tell him what it meant.

The witch marks exist upon the fireplace and upon a stone window mullion to what is thought to be the former Priest’s Room at Borwick Hall, in Lancashire, which is situated just to the south of the border with Cumbria.

Borwick Hall is a Grade I Listed stone manor house, incorporating an Elizabethan manor house, a late 14th century peel tower, and mid 16th century rear and east wings. The Hall was owned by the Bindloss family in the late 16th century, who extended the house, and built the large imposing Elizabethan mansion.

Borwick Hall is not open to the public.

The witch marks consist of a complicated combined form of spiritual defence, with three identical versions: two of which have been carved onto the stone fireplace surround and mantle; and one to a stone window mullion.

They have been carved above the fireplace to protect the opening from any evil spirit or entity coming down from the chimney and into the room; and upon the window mullion, to prevent any dark force from accessing the room through the window opening.

Before we look at the identical witch marks, we must give them some context, because their form relates to Catholicism, as we will see below.

Holly tells me that the former Priest’s Room (said to be one of two rooms allotted to the priest), is thought to be the most haunted room of the Hall.

‘A History of the County of Lancaster, Volume 8, Edited by William Farrer and J Brownbill, 1914, Pages 170-175’, tells us that the Priest’s two lodging rooms, next to the old Chapel within the old peel tower, next door, are housed in the mid 16th century east wing. It has a stone fireplace and full height square panelling, decorated with tied olive branches, with the joints of the framing, painted with gilded stars and fleurs de lis.

Holly also tells me that in the room there is a sealed off priest hole, which allowed Catholic priests to conceal themselves. This is also confirmed by books on the subject of priest-holes.

During Elizabeth I’s reign, Catholic priests who continued to perform mass, and try to convert Protestants, were hunted down, imprisoned, and often killed. These recusants were also hunted in James I’s reign, especially after the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.

Holly has been told that the old Chapel in the old peel tower was disguised during the Reformation, due to the household being Catholic, who hid priests here, and the Hall was known as a Catholic stronghold. Even after the 1590s, the next owners of the Hall were suspected to be supportive of Catholicism and secret Royalists during the later English Civil War.

Roger Bindloss bought Borwick Hall in the 1590s, and built the large Elizabethan mansion, attached to the medieval peel tower, before his own death in 1595. His son Robert inherited the estate, and was the High Sherriff of Lancashire in 1613. Due to his eldest son, Sir Francis Bindloss, dying in 1629, before Robert’s own death, the estate passed to his grandson, also Robert. Francis was knighted in 1624 and became an MP in 1628.

Robert Bindloss, Francis’s son, was only young when he inherited his grandfather’s estate in 1630, and was looked after by his stepfather, the staunch Royalist Sir John Byron, who had married Sir Francis’ widow, Cecilia. He officially backed Parliament during the English Civil War, but is thought to have been sympathetic to the Royalist cause. He was knighted and made a Baronet by Charles I in 1641. It is thought he only officially backed Parliament for fear of losing his estate, even making sure he wasn’t at home when Charles II supposedly stayed there before the fateful battle of Worcester in 1651. He held many official posts, as well as being the Mayor of Lancaster between 1665 and 1666, High Sherriff of Lancashire from 1657 to 1658, and from 1671 to 1673. He was also a Member of Parliament at various times between 1646 and 1660. He died in 1688.

Borwick Hall then passed into the Standish family, via Sir Robert Bindloss’ only heir and daughter, Cecilia, named the same as his mother. She married William Standish. William’s son, Ralph Standish, was a prominent Catholic, and backed the Stuart claim to the throne in the early 18th century. He joined the Jacobite Rebellion in 1715, and marched south to Preston. At the Battle of Preston, the Jacobite and Scottish army was defeated, and Ralph was taken as a prisoner back to London. Although sentenced to death, he was allowed to go free, after some jail time, and was able to buy back his estates, which had been confiscated. He died in 1755.

(Sources: Wikipedia @ https://en.wikipedia.org and Geni @ www.geni.com).

Interestingly, Sir Robert Bindloss appointed Richard Sherlock his chaplain in 1652, who was said to be a Papist in disguise, as well as being a chaplain to the Royalists, and who may have lived in the Priest’s Rooms within the Hall.

As well as that, William Standish who had married his only daughter Cecilia, was also a prominent Catholic.

The links of the Bindloss family to Catholicism and possible Royalist sympathies, during the 17th century, and the previous family who lived at the Hall before the 1590s, who were said to be Catholic, as well as using the Hall as a Catholic stronghold, during and after the Reformation, certainly give us context to why these witch marks, also contain elements of the Catholic faith, which we will now discuss.

This protective mark is a combination demon trap as well as a Catholic Prayer to invoke the protection of the Virgin Mary, to protect the house from demon attack: from the fireplace opening two are situated above; and from the window opening.

It combines the protective qualities of the five pointed star or pentagram, with that of 'AVM' or the Catholic Prayer of 'Ave Maria', Hail Mary, with that of the 'VV' or the Marian Symbol, i.e. 'Virgo Virginum', Virgin of Virgins.

The pentagram is also incomplete, and when geometric protective devices are not finished, this can be interpreted as having an opposing effect of cursing any malevolent spirit which gains entry, rather than just protecting against evil. As well as inviting God to finish the pentagram, to make it perfect and complete, and therefore invoking the protection of God Almighty, from our imperfect world below.

It also includes to the centre of its design, if we trace over the lines repeatedly, an A, where the cross bar is formed from a 'v', where we can also form a 'V' and again with the legs of the 'A', a 'M'. We may also make an 'A' from the space between the two sets of upper parallel lines, as well as another 'V' and another 'M'. These symbols therefore represent 'AVM' as one letter, and both represent the Catholic Prayer of Hail Mary, i.e. 'AVe Maria'.

We may also make from the symbol, 'VM', both upright, as well as inverted, and this likely again represents and invokes the protection of the 'Virgin Mary'. This may also represent the phrase 'As Above So Below', and therefore invokes the protection of Heaven above, here on Earth.

We can also make out multiple 'V's, but the two formed from the extra lines which extend from the pentagram, rather than completing it, are the two most important ones, as well as the two sets of two, one small one large, which may be formed from the two lower triangles of the unfinished pentagram, and represent the phrase 'Virgo Virginum' or Virgin of Virgins.

We may also make an upright 'V' and an inverted 'V', again representing the Marian Symbol, and that phrase, 'As Above So Below'.

Together they represent the Pentagram, the Virgin Mary, and the Catholic phrase 'Ave Maria Virgo Virginum' or in English, 'Hail Mary, Virgin of Virgins', and therefore invoke the protection of the Virgin Mary, to ward off evil. As well as symbolising the phrase 'As Above So Below'.

Also with the symbol being so confusing, this therefore means that it would confuse a demon or evil entity, perplexing it, and therefore trapping it.

As well as that it is also obviously confusing and a bit of a puzzle, to the untrained eye, to hide a person’s Catholic Faith, whilst it was outlawed, that's the most likely reason it is so complicated and hard to understand.

It is the most complicated protective or witch mark I have seen up to now, I have seen one ‘AVM’ mark, many 'VV's and quite a few five pointed stars or pentagrams. It is a very interesting example, and the Catholic link explains its complicated form.

Its form most likely means that it was hidden in plain sight from the Protestant regime, so I expect it was made during the Reformation, after this east wing was constructed in the mid 16th century, but most likely before the end of the 17th century, whilst Catholics were still being persecuted, and heavily shunned. I don’t think it dates after this, until the late 18th / early 19th century Catholic Emancipation.

As well as being spiritual protection marks, they also allow a quiet nod to anyone who visited the house, that if you were Catholic, you were safe here, amongst fellow worshippers, whilst to those not knowledgeable of its true meaning, it just looks similar to other witch marks, or a very odd unfinished pentagram.

The example to the stone mullion has been carved with a good degree of accuracy, and with the two on the stone fireplace, one to the curved and ogee moulded mantle, it means that these have been carved by someone who had at least some if not all of a stonemason’s skills. They certainly haven’t been carved by a household member overnight.

The Pentagram: A Catholic Ritual Protection Symbol

As we have seen in two of the examples above, Virgo Virginum and Ave Maria are often secretly symbolised in other geometric shapes, and this is also the case with the five pointed star, or pentagram.

However, in addition to the Virgo Virginum and Ave Maria, i.e. Virgin of Virgins and Hail Mary, the pentagram also hides within its points the Five Holy Wounds, or the Five Sacred Wounds, or the Five Precious Wounds, which pierced the crucified Christ, i.e. the four nail wounds to his hands and feet, as well as the lance wound which pierced his side. In this way the pentagram actually represents Christ, much like the Crucifix.

Where we find the pentagram upon religious buildings, as part of the design, such as window forms, etc, then they represent Christ and his five wounds sustained on the cross. However, where we find them as graffiti on religious buildings, often dating to after the Reformation, then they represent the re-Catholicisation of the Protestantisation of Religious Buildings, incised upon the structures by outlawed, secret, or shunned worshipping Catholics.

Like other religious motifs upon buildings, such as green man, pentagrams have mainly lost their Christian symbolism, and nowadays, mean something different entirely, with many meanings. Or in the case of green men, their meaning has completely been lost, and is still open to interpretation.

Today, the five pointed star or pentagram is often thought of as a pagan or satanic symbol, whereas it actually, in this context, represents Christ on the Cross, and his worship, but from a Catholic perspective, along with the reading of the star’s lines, read repeating around the edges, symbolising the Virgin Mary, as Virgo Virginum, and Ave Maria, along with the five wounds of the crucified Christ.

The five pointed star or pentagram also represented the Star of Bethlehem, as well as the Morning Star, Venus. Christ himself is recorded in the Book of Revelation, in Chapter 22, Verse 16, as saying: “I am the root and the offspring of David, and the bright and morning star.”

As well as the Christian Catholic use of the Pentagram as a ritual protection mark, the pentagram’s other protective attributes may also be utilised where examples exist.

Four examples of incised five pointed stars, or pentagrams / pentangles, exist on: the north wall of the tower, to the north transept known as St George’s Chapel, at St Mary’s Church in Nantwich; and again on the walls between the arcades within the outer parlour of Norton Priory; and on one of the nave’s circular stone pillars at Farndon Church; all in Cheshire.

The Magic Carpet: An Unexpected Apotropaic Device

Who would have though the ‘in plain sight’ humble door mat was actually sometimes designed with the warding off of evil in mind?

If you look at the photograph of a woven reed or straw door mat below, and then look at the design, and try to understand its weave, following each woven strand around, and keep doing so, you will realise you are entranced by it, you are following an infinite fibre, possibly for eternity, if you keep going, then look away for a moment, then try and pick up where you left off, you could be transfixed for days, or eternity, until you get to the part where you began?

This was especially the case if you were a devil or demon, or a malevolent creature, you would not be able to pull your eyes from the following game, until you got to the end of the rope, and in this way it is a type of demon trap, based upon an endless line, which if not cyclic, has no true end.

Try it you’ll see what it is like!

If you didn’t have the power to stop, you would feel like what folk of the past thought demons were like! Or at least your glance or overly downward eyes towards the mat would ring alarm bells, in the householder.

There really is intelligence and genius within its humble design. It’s woven into a decorative pattern, but its woven fibres are essentially infinite, i.e. never ending, and cyclic, i.e. like the serpent biting its own tail (Ouroboros), it is self repeating, and without end.

These types of door mat are less common than they used to be, but many houses and other buildings have them at doorways, either on the outside or inside.

Their original purpose was as a door mat, to help take dirt from a person’s footwear; but we have lost their dual purpose, which was also to ward off evil which may try to cross the threshold into a dwelling.

It was believed that any devil or demon often tried to gain access through openings, especially doors, windows and chimneys.

The entrance doorway was often used by everyone, especially if the rear doorway, and in those more superstitious times, how did you know whoever was given access or tried to gain access to your home or property, had truly virtuous reasons for gaining access?

How did you know they were not carrying a demon or demons?

How did you know if they were possessed or not?

How did you know if they were even human at all?

Well, cue the humble door mat with endless woven strands. If they were demonic, surely they would stop and pause in awe of the endless woven lines, enough for you to have at least some suspicion they were not what they said they were, and were trying to gain access under evil pretences.

Just think of how many historic entranceways, especially in timber framed buildings, where carvings and motifs are often found by or on the door itself, to ward off evil intruders.

Just think of the burn marks sometimes found on church doors, and mistakenly attributed to demonic black dogs’ claws. It was the first line of defence.

Why wouldn’t a demon try and use the doorway used by everyone else first to gain access?

Even Christ appears at the doorways of those who God has faith in may change, but Christ can only help if He is let in through the door, i.e. the occupant of the dwelling, accepts him over the threshold, and into his loving and reaffirming heart.

So likewise, any devil or demon, or other malevolent creature, may try to gain access into a dwelling or other building, through the most used doorway, hoping that whatever guise they appear in, will fool the occupier into giving whatever it really is, full access, and freedom to come and go as much as it desires.

So like the horseshoe often seen above an entrance from the outside into the inside of a dwelling or building, the humble woven door mat, was also apotropaic, i.e. it warded off evil. Horseshoes before the Victorian Era were not nailed above a door facing upward to catch luck, but rather faced downward, so that the two terminals, sometimes spiked, would fall onto any demon, or evil entity, and cause them death or serious injury, and thereby protecting those godly creatures living within.

Just think how many doors in the historic past had woven straw, reed, or other woven fibres, weaved into an endless loop and knotwork patterned door mat, which we have overlooked, because of the fact, they were once so common!

These knotwork endless patterns also implicate that most or all knotwork patterns form the past, obviously those we see in the Celtic, Saxon and Viking worlds, were also apotropaic, and protected the wearer or owner of such, from evil attack.

If you had seen the above photograph of the humble door mat, without reading the rest, you would have at first thought: “What does a door mat have to do with the warding off of evil?”

Well now you know, it sat upon your threshold, or those you know, or did know, to protect you whilst you were inside, from evil accessing your world!

“Devils beware upon which threshold you dare to tread

From Above I hope a horseshoe falls upon your evil head

And from Below an endless hell to make sure you’re dead!”

Saltire Crosses, Marian Marks and Compass Drawn Protections:

All Saints' Church, Madeley, North Staffordshire

Whilst visiting the medieval All Saints’ Church in the village of Madeley in North Staffordshire, on Saturday 17^th September 2022, as part of ‘Heritage Open Days’, a number of Saltire Crosses, Marian Protective Marks, and Circular Compass incised protective symbols were found.

The protective devices were all found in the Tower, specifically in the Ringing Chamber, its stone spiral staircase entrance, or the Belfry. Luckily the Tower was open to the public as part of the event.

As well as protective symbols, there was a lot of graffiti too, as well as some stonemason marks.

The Saltire Cross, Crux Decussata, St Andrew’s Cross, or the Boundary Cross, are the terms which may be applied to this protective mark. It is usually made up of ‘IXI’, representing a barricaded doorway or opening between the jambs (frame edges).

If we look at the form of the protective mark at its most basic level, we can see that the ‘X’ bars entry through an opening from the outside. Imagine in the historic past, people trying to enter a leader’s, lord’s, King’s, Emperor’s tent, house, hall, castle, etc, but the two guards holding crossed staffs, spears, swords or halberds, bar entry to those they deem unfit to enter, or unblock/uncross the way of those they deem fit to enter. This is exactly what these symbols mean in the spiritual protection sense; the ‘X’ symbolically bars entry to those unwanted and malevolent spirits which may cause harm to the occupants, or their detrimental effect on any object housed within.

The protective device is also known as the ‘butterfly cross’, and another possible interpretation was suggested by CJ Binding and LJ Wilson in their article, ‘Ritual Protection Marks in Wookey Hole and Long Hole, Somerset, 2010, UBSS Proceedings, Volume 25(1), pp. 47-73’, that its use stemmed from the runic alphabet, and the symbol for ‘D’, or ‘dagaz’, which is thought to mean a dawn, or the beginning of the day, and has solar attributes, signifying good luck, protection and the triumph of light over darkness.

Another interesting connection to the protective symbol ‘IXI’, and its use to keep out demonic forces, is that the Latin word ‘eixir/EIXIR’ includes these letters to its central part, and the etymology of the word comes from the Latin ‘eixit’, which means ‘to quit’ or ‘exit’, and that word comes from the Latin ‘exeo’, which means ‘go out of, from’, which is a much similar meaning to that of the Greek word for protective marks, i.e. apotropaic, which is ‘to ward off’, or ‘to turn away’.

Interestingly these examples were found barring the doorway from the stone spiral staircase into the Tower’s Ringing Chamber, and on the stone pillar reveals to either side of a large opening into the Nave from the Tower, each side of a timber balustrade rail, in the Ringing Chamber.

The Marian symbol is a geometric protective mark, but deserves its own title. They are incised on many religious buildings, especially near to doors and windows, and between the boundaries within such buildings, such as between the nave and chancel, or in some of the cases here, between the Tower and Nave. They also appear on secular buildings in similar places, like near doors, windows and fireplaces, where devils, demons or witches may try to gain access from the outside world.

It is usually made up of two ‘V’s which often intertwine in the middle, to form an inverted ‘M’ for Mary, or upright ‘W’, but sometimes appear in other formats.

These symbols represent the protector, the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God (known also as the ‘Virgo Virginum’ i.e. Virgin of Virgins). In this way they express ‘Mary, Virgin of Virgins’. They invoke her protection as the Queen of Heaven, and as such drive away any demonic forces trying to access religious or secular buildings.

Matthew Champion an expert on apotropaic symbols and church graffiti, believes that the Marian symbol, which is by far the most common apotropaic symbol, was even used until the 18^th and 19^th centuries, and must have become a general good luck symbol as well as a device to ward off evil, to be still used after the Reformation, although in Catholic households its original meaning may have remained.

They may also be symbolic of the vulva, like the Sheela na gig, which were as well as other depictions of goddess or pregnant female forms, were used to ward off evil, and signified the wonders of childbirth and creation. What better way to shun the wicked than with the vulva that gave birth to the Christ. Many churches depict the vulva almond shape in carvings, art, stained glass, etc, which is known as the ‘vesica piscis’, which is often depicted enclosing the Christ or the Virgin Mary.

The ‘vesica pisics’ is created by drawing two circles which overlap each other, and in Sacred Geometry this represents the first aspects of Creation, as well as the unity of Heaven and Earth, where both meet together in harmony.

At All Saints’ Church in Madeley, they adorn the Tower’s Ringing Chamber eastern timber balustrade rail, as well as the stonework near a window in the Tower’s Belfry.

Circular Compass drawn protective designs, made up of a circle or a web of circles, like we see here at Madeley Church, near to the West Window of the Tower’s Ringing Chamber, and also to a Belfry Window; consist of endless lines as all circles are, or multiples of them, and act as demon traps, to ward off, confuse or entrap any evil forces. Circles were often thought to confuse demonic entities because they had no corners to hide in.

These concentric circles are sometimes known as bull’s eyes and as such guard against the evil eye, as well as being demon traps, and used to expel malevolent forces.

The first of these above, consists of 5 circles overlaid over each other, with the centre resembling an eye staring out from the stone, to ward off evil. It is also representative of the ‘vesica piscis’, representing the vulva from which the Son of God was given entry to this human world, and therefore exerts all the protective power of God.

This protective device is also made up of five circles, which may also represent the ‘Five Holy Wounds of Christ’, i.e. the four nails inserted into his hands and feet, as well as the spear wound to his heart. In this light they represent the holy protection of the Christ, of the Church and Ringing Chamber.