Nelson and Johnson (1999) have done an elegant job of blending the models of Littrell et al. (1979) and Bernard (1979, 1997) to address the stages of supervision in accordance with the intern's needs, as well as the focus of supervision and the various roles played by the supervisor. The result is an integrated approach that we believe will provide a helpful foundation for on-site supervisors working with interns in both school and community / agency sites. The discrimination model (Bernard, 1979, 1997) identifies three foci of supervision including process, conceptualization, and personalization. Process refers to techniques and strategies to use in therapy. Conceptualization is a more cognitive focus that relies on the intern's analysis of client patterns, identification of progress, as well as realistic models or goals for clients. Personalization can encompass openness to supervision, cognitive and emotional self-awareness of the intern, and how interns integrate their personal style with their counseling style. Within each focus, a supervisor could play any of three roles: teacher, counselor, or consultant (which is more a combination of teacher and counselor). Littrell et al. (1979), outlined the following stages of development typically experienced by interns. The first is the Orientation Stage, which includes establishing the relationship with the supervisor and constructing the learning contract. Teaching and counseling roles from Bernard's Discrimination Model are more helpful to use with interns at this stage (Nelson & Johnson, 1999).The second stage is the Working Stage where interns are exposed to clients and the supervisor assesses the intern's strengths and weaknesses. As the intern progresses through this stage, he or she might strengthen existing skills or learn new strategies. The supervisor will provide knowledge, structure, and support by alternating between roles of teacher and counselor (Nelson & Johnson, 1999).The third stage is the Transition Stage, marked by a gain in the intern's self-confidence related to an improvement in their skills. Interns should have the capacity for greater self-awareness at this stage and should be encouraged to assert their independence by offering options or suggestions for interventions, rather than looking directly toward the supervisor for answers. It is suggested that the supervisor begin to adopt more of a collegial or consultant role at this stage (Nelson & Johnson, 1999).The fourth and final stage is the Integration Stage, which many interns will not attain until they have acquired more post-master's experience in the school or agency. However, a few students may have either considerable skills or previous related work experience that helps them reach this stage while still in internship. The competence level that accompanies this stage includes knowledge of solid counseling skills important for the site, as well as skills necessary to create their own strategies, activities, or programs for clients. On-Site Supervisors at this stage will still find it appropriate to assume roles of teacher or counselor at times, but the primary role will be that of consultant.
This final consultation role characterizes the relationship as more of a partnership, where supervisors play a more distant role that allows interns to design the remainder of their experience. A strong focus is on integration which is accomplished through verbal feedback and periodic written and summative evaluations.
How to Encourage Supervisee Reflectivity Within Roles Outlined by the Discrimination Model
A few examples from a model developed by Neufeldt (1994 in Bernard & Goodyear, 1998, p103) may serve to ground the stages and roles presented above.
*Teaching functions:
*Counseling functions:
*Consulting Functions:
*Combined Functions (for Advanced Interns)