[G-AREA] Special Misae

To overcome these limitations, several attempts have been made to build a semi-permanent sea surface platform for continuous GNSS-A measurement and transmission of the data obtained to a land-based station. Chadwell et al. (2016) demonstrated the use of a Wave Glider that autonomously traveled more than 300 miles and carried out campaign GNSS-A observations at three sites in the Cascadia subduction zone. Around Japan, especially in the Nankai region, the sea current is too strong for a Wave Glider to be kept under control; a mooring system is needed instead. Moored Global Positioning System (GPS) buoys have been developed to monitor wave heights and tsunamis using real-time kinematic GPS positioning (Kato et al. 2000; 2011; Terada et al. 2015) or an on-site real-time precise point positioning (PPP, Zumberge et al. 1997) technique (Terada et al. 2013) along the Pacific coast of Japan. Kato et al. (2018) implemented a GNSS-A system for one of the moored buoys and began experimental measurements. Takahashi et al. (2014) developed a mooring system for seafloor crustal movement and tsunami monitoring and conducted a 3-month sea trial in 2013, 100 km from the Kii Peninsula, at a depth of 3000 m. This mooring system was a prototype for our research. Improvements were made to the whole system and specifically to the GNSS-A component that processes the data obtained and transmits the results automatically via satellite link. Subsequent sea trials were conducted for 5 months in 2014 (Takahashi et al. 2015) and for the full year of 2016 (Takahashi et al. 2017; Fukuda et al. 2017).

We computed EDOP, NDOP, and HDOP as a function of an observation point using our array geometry, shown in Additional file 1: Figure S6. A large DOP value corresponds to degraded positioning accuracy, indicating difficulty in distinguishing each component of an array position component from the delay due to the temporal variation of sound speed. We also examined the case of three PXPs (Additional file 1: Figure S7), which is the minimum number required for GNSS-A positioning. Because the case of three PXPs has no redundancy, a mathematically indefinite position (HDOP is singular) appears outside the array for horizontal positioning. In this region, there is a full tradeoff between the array position and sound speed variation. This underscores the importance of a redundant PXP layout, especially for observations from uncontrollable moored buoys.

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As described above, we can easily translate diagonalized DOP into positioning accuracy. The advantage becomes especially obvious for separate directional estimates of 1 and 2. It is clear that the positioning accuracy of GNSS-A measurements should be determined considering directional characteristics, depending on the observation point. Although GNSS-A measurement is performed under severe conditions, such as outside the array, we can derive considerable information concerning seafloor displacement from estimated array positions.

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