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Sodium attracts water, and a high-sodium diet draws water into the bloodstream, which can increase the volume of blood and subsequently your blood pressure. High blood pressure (also known as hypertension) is a condition in which blood pressure remains elevated over time. Hypertension makes the heart work too hard, and the high force of the blood flow can harm arteries and organs (such as the heart, kidneys, brain, and eyes). Uncontrolled high blood pressure can raise the risk of heart attack, heart failure, stroke, kidney disease, and blindness. In addition, blood pressure generally rises as you get older, so limiting your sodium intake becomes even more important each year.

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Your exercise habits affect the amount of water you should be drinking, as well. The American College of Sports Medicine recommends adding 12 ounces of water to your daily intake for every 30 minutes that you plan to work out.

Water is an excellent calorie-free, sugar-free choice. For some people who are accustomed to drinking sweet beverages, water can initially taste bland. To increase water consumption without losing flavor or to spice up your daily water intake, try these refreshing water-based beverages:

Sparkling juices may have as many calories as sugary soda. Instead, make your own sparkling juice at home with 12 ounces of sparkling water and just an ounce or two of juice. For additional flavor, add sliced citrus or fresh herbs like mint.

UCSF Health medical specialists have reviewed this information. It is for educational purposes only and is not intended to replace the advice of your doctor or other health care provider. We encourage you to discuss any questions or concerns you may have with your provider.

Heavy alcohol consumption has been associated with brain atrophy, neuronal loss, and poorer white matter fiber integrity. However, there is conflicting evidence on whether light-to-moderate alcohol consumption shows similar negative associations with brain structure. To address this, we examine the associations between alcohol intake and brain structure using multimodal imaging data from 36,678 generally healthy middle-aged and older adults from the UK Biobank, controlling for numerous potential confounds. Consistent with prior literature, we find negative associations between alcohol intake and brain macrostructure and microstructure. Specifically, alcohol intake is negatively associated with global brain volume measures, regional gray matter volumes, and white matter microstructure. Here, we show that the negative associations between alcohol intake and brain macrostructure and microstructure are already apparent in individuals consuming an average of only one to two daily alcohol units, and become stronger as alcohol intake increases.

Despite an extensive literature on the associations of alcohol consumption with brain structure and microstructure in individuals with AUD, there is limited research exploring these associations in individuals who consume alcohol but do not have AUD. In some studies of middle-aged and older adults, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with lower total cerebral volume28, gray matter atrophy29,30, and lower density of gray matter in frontal and parietal brain regions30. However, other studies have failed to show an association31, and one study showed a positive association of light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and GMV in older men32. One interpretation of these findings is that an inverse U-shaped, dose-dependent association exists between alcohol consumption and brain structure32. However, this interpretation was not supported by a longitudinal cohort study, which showed no difference in structural brain measures between individuals who did not consume alcohol and those who consumed between 1 and

The negative associations between alcohol intake and total GMV and WMV are consistent with prior studies of early middle-aged46 and older adults28,47. Based on Figs. 2 and 3, which show that males consumed more alcohol units per day and had larger global GMV and WMV, we further examine the influence of sex in detail. We find negative associations between alcohol intake and the global IDPs for both sexes and weak evidence for interactive effects between alcohol intake and sex on the brain. These findings are similar to a recent study of early middle-aged adult moderate drinkers that showed smaller brain volumes associated with moderate alcohol consumption in men and women46. The weak sex-by-alcohol interactions also comport with the findings of an earlier longitudinal study in individuals with AUD38; however, other cross-sectional studies have reported greater volume changes in women than men48,49.

Further, our analyses do not account for individuals with a past diagnosis of AUD. Earlier studies have shown that the brain shows some recovery with the cessation of drinking in individuals with AUD, but this varies with age and sex, and recovery might be incomplete54,55,56. Thus, a past diagnosis of AUD would likely influence our results. We hope future studies will shed light on how a history of AUD with prolonged recovery is associated with brain structure in middle-aged and older adults. Moreover, partial volume effects (e.g., voxels containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)) can reduce the accuracy of tissue characterization and WM microstructural estimates. Previous research indicates that partial volume effects can bias diffusion measures toward a pattern of high diffusivity (MD) and reduced FA, particularly in intraventricular locations like the fornix57,58. As such, our findings could reflect partial volume effects; however, it should be noted that the structural data were acquired using T2-weighted FLAIR imaging, a structural technique that mitigates CSF contamination by suppressing signal from fluid (i.e., CSF).

In summary, this study provides additional evidence for a negative association between alcohol intake and brain macrostructure and microstructure in a general population sample of middle-aged and older adults. Alcohol intake is negatively associated with global brain volume measures, regional GMVs, and WM microstructure. The associations between alcohol intake and regional GMV are evident across the entire brain, with the largest volume changes observed in frontal, parietal, and insular cortices, temporal and cingulate regions, the brain stem, putamen, and amygdala. Alcohol intake is related to WM microstructural alterations in several WM tract regions connecting large-scale networks and deeper WM systems. Most of these negative associations are apparent in individuals consuming an average of only one to two daily alcohol units. Thus, this multimodal imaging study highlights the potential for even moderate drinking to be associated with changes in brain volume in middle-aged and older adults.

It is important to get the recommended amount of each food group without going over your daily recommended calories. Keep in mind that the amount you should eat to maintain your weight depends on your age, sex, and level of physical activity.

Some foods are not in any of the main food groups. These include oils, which can be eaten regularly as part of a healthy diet, as well as unhealthy fats, sugars, and calories from drinks, which should only be consumed occasionally. There is no recommended daily intake amount in cups or ounces for these products. Limiting the calories you consume from this category can help keep your healthy eating habits on track.

Coffee is comprised of many bioactive compounds in addition to caffeine. These active compounds may interact with each other and therefore coffee consumption cannot be directly compared to caffeine consumption in its purest form (1,3,7-trimethyl xanthine) [18]. Interestingly, only two studies have specifically investigated the effects of caffeine in the form of coffee on hydration status. One study investigated the effects of six cups of coffee (624 mg caffeine) on urine excretion following a five day caffeine deprivation period [10]. Over the 24 h period, authors report a 2.7% decrease in total body water and a 41% increase in urine excretion, with a subsequent 66% and 28% increase in urinary sodium and potassium excretion, respectively. Due to the study design, which only included caffeine habituated participants who abstained from caffeine for 5 days prior to testing, the results of the study should be interpreted with caution before applying to habitual moderate-intake coffee drinkers. Another study investigated the effects of consuming equal amounts of water, caffeinated cola and caffeinated coffee (3.10.4 mg/kg caffeine/day) against water with a mixture of caffeinated colas (1.40.2 mg/kg caffeine/day) or non-caffeinated beverages [13]. The authors found no effects of coffee consumption compared with non-caffeinated beverages across a range of hydration markers in caffeine-habituated participants. Whilst the authors concluded that the advice to exclude caffeinated beverages from daily fluid requirement was not supported by their findings, the study did not measure total body water. Total body water (TBW) estimations using the doubly labelled water dilution technique is considered the gold standard method for assessing body water fluctuations over time [14]. One recent study investigated the effects of caffeine on TBW using deuterium oxide [19]. Thirty participants classified as low caffeine users ( 2351a5e196