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"There will... be found in these volumes little of what is usually called poetic diction," wrote Wordsworth in the "Preface" to Lyrical Ballads. "I have taken as much pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it" (2.244). In their deliberate break with neoclassical precepts, Wordsworth and his contemporary Joanna Baillie each called for a revolution in literary style as well as subject matter. Wordsworth deplored "the gaudiness and inane phraseology of many modern writers." In the "Introductory Discourse" to her 1798 Plays on the Passions, an essay that influenced Wordsworth and Coleridge, Baillie made the same point in her send-up of bad eighteenth-century pastoral: "A shepherd whose sheep, with fleeces of the purest snow, browze the flowery herbage of the most beautiful vallies; whose flute is ever melodious; and whose shepherdess is crowned with roses . . ." Both suggested that poetry should abjure figurative language, or what Baillie called "the enchanted regions of simile, metaphor, allegory and description" and substitute (in Wordsworth's phrase) "language really used by men." Humble people, Wordsworth argued, spoke in "simple and unelaborated expressions," using a more beautiful and even "far more philosophical language" than that of the poets who indulge in "arbitrary and capricious habits of expression" (2.241–42).
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The Romantic turn to the language and experience of ordinary people had political as well as stylistic motives. Interest in what Wordsworth called "incidents and situations from common life" (2.241) was heightened by the American and French Revolutions and the ensuing hope that "the people" were poised to seize power across Europe. Though political democracy would be slow to catch on in England—at the turn of the century, only five percent of adult men held the vote—democratic principles were much in evidence in literary theory and literary practice. Joanna Baillie suggested that ordinary people were in fact more interesting than their aristocratic betters: "those works which most strongly characterize human nature in the middling and lower classes of society, where it is to be discovered by stronger and more unequivocal marks, will ever be the most popular" (2.210). Wordsworth similarly argued that "the essential passions of the heart" were best displayed in "low and rustic life" (2.241).
Coleridge, Wordsworth's partner in the Lyrical Ballads, later came to regard Wordsworth's idealization of the rustic subject as a form of anti-intellectualism. In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge argues that "the best part of human language is derived from reflections on acts of the mind itself," not the simple ruminations of "uneducated man" (2.484). Since language use varies according to education and situation, the writings of philosophers counted as "the REAL language of men" no less than the speech of "a common peasant" (2.484–85). Wordsworth, Coleridge argued, meant "ordinary" rather than "real" language—and furthermore, who could say what this ordinary language was, since the dialect of humble people varied from county to county and village to village?
Montaigne also exerts some consideration of another kind of regular pain, which we understand to be not headaches, but kidney stones, in his essay On the Resemblance of Children to Their Fathers. His impulse, in response to writing about pain, is to locate a small history of other descriptions of pain. It does seem that the nature of writing about pain is to displace it, and through description, allocate its sensory properties into language others might recognize, but by its nature, it is never recreated. It is a gesture of isolation.
That the pain made its entry right as I woke up felt inevitable, and grimly amusing. belying what must have become a somatic connection between the looming cloud of writing this essay and the condensation of vessels occluding the right side of my brain, which, densely forming, produces language, or rain.
The first Volume of these Poems has already been submitted to general perusal. It was published, as an experiment, which, I hoped, might be of some use to ascertain, how far, by fitting to metrical arrangement a selection of the real language of men in a state of vivid sensation, that sort of pleasure and that quantity of pleasure may be imparted, which a Poet may rationally endeavour to impart.
Despite these forceful reactions to the physicality of Wordsworth's language and Johnny's disability, an emphasis on his poetry of mind still colors his critical reputation, and in studies of disability a focus on the descriptive representation of bodies at times neglects the sensory impact of words. For post-structuralist critics following Paul de Man, the problem of Wordsworth's language is more specifically one of failure to represent the mind without "de-facement" or to "become entirely literal" like a natural object.4 As these critics oppose the figurative to the literal and material, they describe Wordsworth's supposed failure in terms that recall and invert his claims to keep his reader "in the company of flesh and blood" (Preface, 747).5 Although the field of disability studies concerns the impact of verbal representation on bodies in the real world, David T. Mitchell and Sharon L. Snyder's influential book, Narrative Prosthesis (2000), echoes this disembodied view of language. So, they claim, language "lacks the very physicality that it seeks to control."6 These dismissals of the idea that language might be a physical agent, in both post-structuralist criticism and some studies of disability, seem to me missed opportunities. With this understanding of language, we lack a framework in which to understand Coleridge's visceral reaction to "The Idiot Boy," the larger role of onomatopoeia and embodiment in Wordsworth's poetics, and the full range of effects that language has on the lived experience of disability. [End Page 28]
Language, Custom and Nation in the 1790s shows for the first time how the radical 'Jacobin' poets, and their ideas of a 'revolutionary' poetry, were impelled - even 'invented' - by the seventeenth-century English philosopher John Locke. For too long the revolutionary Romanticism and poetic experiments of the 1790s have been understood as responses to the American and French revolutions or attributed to the intellectual influence of Rousseau. The author counters these assumptions, by tracing threads of influence from Locke's ideas of 'arbitrary' language and tyranny, through Tooke's attacks on terms such as 'majesty' and 'law', to the supposedly 'real language' of Wordsworthian Romanticism. She breaks new ground in establishing Maria Edgeworth's place in Locke's anti-authoritarian tradition, contending that Edgeworth's work, produced in the shadow of the United Irishmen uprising, revives the politicisation of the idea of common language displaced in Wordsworth's neutralizing of Locke's radical impulse in the preface to Lyrical Ballads. The author's original and engaging book will appeal to scholars of 1790s radicalism, eighteenth-century linguistic theory, women's writing, and the relations between Britain and Ireland.
"The principle object, then, which I proposed to myself in these poems was to choose incidents and situations from common life, and to relate or describe them, throughout, as far as was possible, in a selection of language really used by men; and, at the same time, to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination, whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an unusual way; and, further, and above all, to make these incidents and situations interesting by tracing in them, truly though not ostentatiously, the primary laws of our nature: chiefly, as far as regards the manner in which we associate ideas in a state of excitement. Low and rustic life was generally chosen, because in that condition, the essential passions of the heart find a better soil in which they can attain their maturity, are less under restraint, and speak a plainer and more emphatic language; because in that condition of life our elementary feelings co-exist in a state of greater simplicity, and, consequently, may be more accurately contemplated, and more forcibly communicated; because the manners of rural life germinate from those elementary feelings; and, from the necessary character of rural occupations, are more easily comprehended; and are more durable; and lastly, because in that condition the passions of men are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature" (264-265).
"...a large portion of the language of every good poem can in no respect differ from that of good prose...[Prose and poetry] both speak by and to the same organs; the bodies in which both of them are clothed may be said to be of the saame substance, their affections are kindred and almost identitcal, not necessarily differing even in degree; poetry sheds no tears 'such as Angels weep,' but natural and human tears..." (268-269).
"...it is impossible for the poet to produce upon all occasions language as exquisitely fitted for the passion as that which the real passion itself suggests, it is proper that he should consider himself as in the situation of a translator..." (270).
Wordsworth's enormous poetic legacy rests on a large number of poems written by him. But the themes that run through Wordsworth's poetry remained consistent throughout. Even the language and imagery he used to embody those themes, remained remarkably consistent. They remained consistent to the canons Wordsworth had set out the Preface to Lyrical Ballads. In the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads (1802), he wrote Preface to defend himself form the negative reviews. Wordsworth argued that poetry should be written in the real language of common man, rather than in the lofty and elaborate dictions that were then considered "poetic."He believed that the first principle of poetry should be pleasure and so the chief duty of poetry is to provide pleasure through a rhythmic and beautiful expression of feeling. All human sympathy, he asserted, is based on a subtle pleasure principle that is "the naked and native dignity of man." Wordsworth's poetic creed initiated the Romantic era by emphasizing feeling, instinct, and pleasure above formality and mannerism. More than any poet before him, Wordsworth gave expression to inchoate human emotion. ff782bc1db
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