What is the process in Pix4D Mapper for creating orthoimages from Oblique imagery, preserving the 3D nature of the plants? Using the individual nadir images is fine for model training but obviously when merged together I lose the side-looking view at the edges of each image.

PIX4Dmapper works well with varied oblique camera angles (sub-vertical to slightly oblique - to capture GCPs on the ground, horizontal, and even slightly upward to resolve overhangs) all in one project.

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My associate, Stephen, met up with the groom, Michael, and his groomsmen at the VRBO just minutes from the vineyard. As you can see, they were having a great time prepping for the big day! I must add that this group of men looked so handsome in their suits when they came walking up to the venue! Us photographers just love to see sharp-dressed men!

The wedding ceremony pavilion at Wolf Mountain Vineyards is the cutest open-air pavilion with gorgeous views of the mountains and sunset (depending on the timing of your ceremony). As Sam walked up the aisle with her dad, Jeffrey, she and Michael locked eyes, and then begin to pledge their devotion to one anther. It was a sweet ceremony full of joy, surrounded by their loved ones, and decorated so romantically (La Petite Fluer).

What an honor it was to be the person who got to freeze this day in time for such a joyful couple! I have to give a special thank you to Lindsey at Wolf Mountain for all of her help and a shout-out to Stephen for coming to the rescue and working alongside of me to make this day complete for Sam and Michael. It was truly a perfect day full of favor from above! Thank you Mr. & Mrs. Elkik, for trusting us with your big day on such short notice! May God fill you both with an abundance of Joy for the rest of your lives and bless your marriage beyond your wildest dreams!!! Congratulations, again!!!

I was able to first meet Katherine and Odie during their engagement session out in Colorado where they currently reside. I had a great time getting to know them and creating some stunning images around the Flat Irons and atop Flagstaff Mountain outside of Boulder.

A Tuscan-inspired resort that offers both European charms and modern comfort, Allegretto Vineyard Resort by Ayres is set amidst 20 glorious acres of lush Paso Robles vineyards and graceful orchards that invite you to experience the joy of its uncompromising beauty. Learn more about our lodging options and world-class amenities by taking a tour of our photo gallery.

Aerial images have the potential to greatly enhance our vineyard monitoring efficiency because they allow us to see more vines at once and conceivably, more vines on a regular basis. They also permit us to identify vineyard problems early in their development and track the progress of measures taken to correct them. Further, they show the progress of certain vineyard operations, such as mowing, disking, hedging, and harvesting. Lastly, aerial images may reduce our vineyard monitoring costs by replacing vineyard transects with strategic spot checks.

Aerial images may also increase our vineyard management effectiveness. Often, the quality of a decision depends on the amount of available information. For this reason, aerial images, which provide information in abundance, can help us make better vineyard management decisions. They also facilitate communication with our support staff and service providers about specific locations and the extent of areas of concern. Finally, they help us focus our efforts and resources on problem areas, while avoiding needless efforts elsewhere.

In this article, I provide a few examples of how aerial images can be used to advantage in vineyard management, but first we will delve into the primary image among those commonly available, the NDVI.

NDVI values relate to canopy size, density, and health, and they imply photosynthetic capacity and other plant factors. Absolute NDVI values range between 0 and 1, while NDVI values for grapevine foliage typically range between about 0.20 and 0.53. Some aerial image suppliers provide numerous NDVI scales, some of which focus on and provide greater resolution within the NDVI range of grapevine canopies.

Sometimes, NDVI images contain so much data that they are difficult to interpret. To address these instances, some aerial images suppliers combine categories of NDVI values into fewer groups to produce simplified NDVI zones. Such zoning maps are useful for designating management zones within vineyards and allocating inputs. Below we put the NDVI to work.

An important early season viticultural objective is the growing of complete canopies by around fruit set. To do so, shoots must grow at least at a moderate rate. If their growth is slower, vineyard managers need to take timely actions before the fruit sets to increase vine resources directed towards shoots. Later attempts to stimulate shoot growth, after the vine is directing resources into berries, require extreme measures that are less efficient than earlier efforts and contrary to the production of optimum quality wine grapes. Of course, before actions can be taken a need must be recognized. In this regard, NDVI images are helpful.

The series of NDVI images in Figure 2 show early season canopy changes in a vineyard composed of seven blocks. All blocks share the same Wye trellis, east-west row orientation, and row spacing. Five were fully developed Chardonnay blocks. In these blocks, canopy development was well timed as depicted in the transition from yellow and green to turquoise and blue across the three images.

Two of the blocks in Figure 2 were Pinot gris blocks about to bear their first crop. Their early season canopy development lagged behind that of the Chardonnay. In fact, the orange in the first image (Figure 2A) indicated sparse foliage in the Pinot gris while at the same time, many vines in the Chardonnay blocks had complete canopies with upright shoots, which was evident as medium green (Table 1). Based on these image data, the vineyard manager took prompt action, which resulted in most Pinot gris vines developing complete canopies and carrying moderate crops.

Late season changes in canopies are also apparent in NDVI images, but the sequence of color changes is essentially reverse of those early in the growing season (Figure 3). During this time, the changes represent leaf tissue deterioration due to age, which is associated with declining leaf function rather than loss of leaf area. Grapevine canopies on October 16 (Figure 3C) appeared similar to the incomplete canopies present before May 15 and their photosynthetic activity was similarly limited. The value of applied water and fertilizer were correspondingly limited at this time.

Variability in grapevine growth, canopy development, and fruit production within vineyard blocks is a fact of viticultural life. Likely causes of such variability include, but are not limited to variations in soil depth, texture, rockiness, and drainage, as well as slope and aspect. An important question for vineyard managers is: how much variability is acceptable and how much is too much?

Some aerial image suppliers provide supplemental information to help answer this question, usually as histograms. Histograms are charts that use bars to show how many times a NDVI class occurs within an image. Quite simply, the fewer the color classes and the more closely they are grouped together in a histogram, the lower the canopy variability within the vineyard block.

Even the most uniform vineyard at full canopy will display canopy variation early in the growing season while shoots are growing and late in the season while leaves are senescing. This is illustrated in Figure 5. This figure shows NDVI variability over the course of the 2016 growing season for 5 fairly uniform Chardonnay vineyards with the same vineyard design. In it, variability is shown as percentages of average NDVI values (coefficients of variation). In addition to showing higher variability early and late in the growing season, Figure 5 suggests normal mid season variability of Chardonnay on a Wye trellis is about 18% to 20%. Values greater than these represent too much variability.

The thermal image represents reflected far infrared radiation, which correlates with canopy temperatures. Canopies, of course, cool as vines lose water to the atmosphere through transpiration. As a result, where vines have access to ample soil water, canopies appear cooler than they do where soil water is in short supply.

During 2017, much of California experienced an extended period of high daily maximum temperatures during late August and early September. Grapevine canopy temperatures were affected accordingly. The series of images in Figure 6 display these effects in 6 Chardonnay blocks, all of which share the same Wye trellis and row spacing. They were also similarly irrigated, receiving 65% to 70% of grape ET during this period of time.

On the day before the onset of triple digit maximum air temperatures, canopy temperatures were mostly between 85o F to 95o F (Figure 6A). Photosynthesis in the warmest leaves in this range was somewhat inhibited (Table 2). In the middle of the heat spell, canopy temperatures rose to 100o F to 105o F and photosynthesis sharply declined, as did sugar accumulation in berries (Figure 6B). During the same time, exposed berries and portions of exposed leaves were likely damaged. The day after the intense heat subsided, canopy temperatures plummeted to 75o F to 80o F (Figure 6C). At these temperatures, after they recovered, intact leaf tissues resumed optimum photosynthesis. Leaf recovery, however, drew vine resources away from ripening, which was delayed.

In addition to NDVI and thermal images, many aerial image suppliers provide infrared images and enhanced color images. Color aerial images show reflection of visible radiation composed of blue, red, and green light. Grapevine foliage adsorbs large amounts of blue and red light due to the chlorophyll it contains. The absorption of red is particularly important because it is photosynthetically active. Due to weaker absorption, more green is reflected than blue and red, which makes foliage appear green to us in the field and in color images. Because foliage chlorophyll content varies with foliage age and condition, so does its color reflective signature and appearance in the images. Consequently, the more vigorous growing and healthy the foliage, the greener it appears. 152ee80cbc

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