Often, knowing our own mind and motivations is challenging enough, let alone the minds of strangers or even relatives, friends, or partners. In relationships, many people make the critical mental mistake of overestimating a partner or family member's ability to read their own thoughts, assuming that anyone who knows them well should also know what they think or feel, even if they haven't said it out loud.
In science fiction stories, mind reading is routinely used for nefarious purposes. In the real world, having a clear sense of what others think and feel helps us avoid conflict and miscommunication and strengthen personal relationships.
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Even the most socially adept individuals routinely misread other people's emotions because of their own biases, cultural tendencies, or situational factors, such as not realizing someone who appears to have been crying may only have seasonal allergies. A greater knowledge of how others display their feelings, and, equally importantly, how our minds and bodies respond to the feelings of others, can help improve people-reading skills.
These difficulties likely have roots in multiple areas of the brain; some research has pointed to atypical activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, a region of the brain which plays a role in emotion, moral decisions, and social evaluation.
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Previous functional imaging studies have explored the brain regions activated by tasks requiring 'theory of mind'--the attribution of mental states. Tasks used have been primarily verbal, and it has been unclear to what extent different results have reflected different tasks, scanning techniques, or genuinely distinct regions of activation. Here we report results from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study (fMRI) involving two rather different tasks both designed to tap theory of mind. Brain activation during the theory of mind condition of a story task and a cartoon task showed considerable overlap, specifically in the medial prefrontal cortex (paracingulate cortex). These results are discussed in relation to the cognitive mechanisms underpinning our everyday ability to 'mind-read'.
Results: Finding from 1620 participants with ADHD and 1249 healthy controls showed a significant impairment in theory of mind in individuals with ADHD (Hedges' g = 0.66). Moderator analyses indicated that the impaired theory of mind was not affected by age and gender.
Conclusion: These findings describe impaired theory of mind in individuals with ADHD and provide an insight to pay attention to theory of mind in respective clinical assessments and treatments.
Reading is important for individuals and societies because by writing ideas down we create permanent records of information and help ourselves expand what we are able to remember. While the advantages of reading and writing may be obvious, the process by which we read is less so. First, we must understand that letters correspond to speech sounds called phonemes. Being able to distinguish different sounds of speech is associated with success in reading. Unfortunately, distinguishing these sounds is difficult because people pronounce sounds differently, and the sounds can change depending on the other sounds that occur before or after. English has poor matching between letters and sounds. This slows down the process of learning to read English compared to languages with better matching.
Together letters make words. We do not typically read words letter-by-letter. Rather, we read words in letter clumps. Nearly every word has an associated sound, spelling, and meaning, each of which affects how we read. For example: (1) we read tongue twisters silently to ourselves more slowly than equivalent phrases with dissimilar sounding words; (2) instruction in spelling improves reading abilities; and (3) we are more ready to read words with meanings associate with the words we just read than words that are typically not related. Because students encounter about 85,000 unique words in school texts, vocabulary size matters for reading comprehension. Additionally, understanding deeply how words relate to one another and how to use them flexibly is valuable for developing skill in reading.
Willingham explains that an understanding of sentences requires an understanding of how one sentence relates to the next. As we read sentences we build a web of ideas. If readers cannot connect the ideas in sentences, then it is difficult to build such a web. Reading and understanding sentences is also aided by a rich understanding of knowledge about the world. A knowledgeable reader can fill in details a writer omits. Indeed, reading comprehension is much better the more background knowledge a reader has about the topic of the written material.
As Willingham notes, it is difficult to translate science research about reading into recommendations for policy or practice. While being careful not to over-interpret research findings, The Reading Mind offers useful suggestions for how policy-makers and practioners can use cognitive psychological literature to inform their work. For additional insightful work by Willingham, see our review of his book Raising Kids Who Read.
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I specifically enjoy reading biographies, inspirational stories about business and personal experiences, and the latest developments in behavioural economics. This year, the books I selected include a wide variety of these topics and support the solution-driven mindset of positivity that we focus on at Discovery. I am very excited for us to enjoy these books together:
Rationality: What it is, why it seems scarce, why it matters by Steven Pinker. As humans we have made significant advances in science and other areas, yet the sense is that we have never been more irrational. This book explores why and how thinking rationally can be a powerful tool in any situation.
The master: The brilliant career of Rodger Federer by Christopher Clarey. I have always been a big admirer of Rodger Federer; he is my favourite tennis player and a phenomenal sportsperson. I particularly enjoyed this biography of the greatest player in men's tennis and the views of those closest to him.
Choose possibility: Take risks and thrive by Sukhinder Singh Cassidy, a well-respected female tech executive in Silicon Valley, shares her encounters with poor choices and other pitfalls that she had to incorporate into her path. An important read at this time.
Masters of scale by Reid Hoffman, founder of LinkedIn, draws on the most revealing stories in his podcast with the same name. He shares the most extraordinary success stories of our times, including wisdom from leaders of Apple, Nike, Netflix, and the disruptive startups that are solving the problems of this century.
The powerful and the damned: Private diaries in turbulent times by Lionel Barber, former editor of Financial Times. The FT has always been a part of my regular reading and this fascinating diary of Lionel Barber tells the stories behind headlines and conversations. Absolutely fascinating.
I hope this inspires you to make reading a part of your holiday. Please feel free to let me know your thoughts on any of these books, if you have read them. I wish you a happy holiday, a well-deserved break and look forward to connecting again in 2022.
The Reading Mind is a brilliant, beautifully crafted, and accessible exploration of arguably life's most important skill: reading. Daniel T. Willingham, the bestselling author of Why Don't Students Like School?, offers a perspective that is rooted in contemporary cognitive research. He deftly describes the incredibly complex and nearly instantaneous series of events that occur from the moment a child sees a single letter to the time they finish reading. The Reading Mind explains the fascinating journey from seeing letters, then words, sentences, and so on, with the author highlighting each step along the way. This resource covers every aspect of reading, starting with two fundamental processes: reading by sight and reading by sound. It also addresses reading comprehension at all levels, from reading for understanding at early levels to inferring deeper meaning from texts and novels in high school. The author also considers the undeniable connection between reading and writing, as well as the important role of motivation as it relates to reading. Finally, as a cutting-edge researcher, Willingham tackles the intersection of our rapidly changing technology and its effects on learning to read and reading.
Every teacher, reading specialist, literacy coach, and school administrator will find this book invaluable. Understanding the fascinating science behind the magic of reading is essential for every educator. Indeed, every "reader" will be captivated by the dynamic but invisible workings of their own minds.
DANIEL T. WILLINGHAM, PHD, is professor of psychology at the University of Virginia. His bestselling first book, Why Don't Students Like School?, was hailed as "brilliant analysis" by The Wall Street Journal and "a triumph" by The Washington Post, recommended by scores of education-related magazines and blogs, and translated into many languages. His second book, When Can You Trust the Experts? How to Tell Good Science from Bad in Education, was named recommended reading by Nature and Scientific American, and made Choice's list of outstanding academic titles for 2013. His companion to this book, Raising Kids Who Read, garnered recognition from NPR and Learning & the Brain. Willingham writes a regular column called Ask the Cognitive Scientist for the American Federation of Teachers' magazine, American Educator. In 2017, Willingham was named by President Obama to the National Board for Education Sciences. He received a BA from Duke University and a PhD from Harvard University. 152ee80cbc
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