Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell
Embedded Files
Sources – Amphetamines
Sources – Amphetamines
We thank the following expert for his comments:
Prof. Jaanus Harro
University of Tartu
Dealing with substance abuse is a difficult task. Thankfully, you’re never alone in the task. Whether you want to confront your addiction, help out a friend or family member, or simply ask professionals sensitive questions in confidence, there are helplines, health centers and other resources available:
United States
SAMHSA substance abuse hotline:
https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/helplines/national-helpline
American Addiction Centers methamphetamine helpline:
https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcohol-drug-hotline/meth
Find a Health Center map:
https://findahealthcenter.hrsa.gov/
United Kingdom
Local drug and alcohol support:
https://www.talktofrank.com/get-help/find-support-near-you
Support for your, or someone else’s drug use:
Germany
Addiction help hotline for you or someone else:
https://www.guttempler.de/nottelefon/
A directory of all drug and addiction counselling centres:
https://www.dhs.de/service/suchthilfeverzeichnis
France
CSAPA Center for assistance of substance abusers and their entourage:
https://intervenir-addictions.fr/orienter/vers-qui-orienter/csapa/
Anonymous free helpline for substance abuse:
https://www.jeunes.gouv.fr/drogues-info-service-vos-cotes-7j7-de-8h-2h-418
Italy
National drug abuse and counseling helpline:
https://www.iss.it/numeri-verdi/-/asset_publisher/LXvuDqwiaG9G/content/il-telefono-verde-droga
Accredited communities and facilities for handling drug abuse care and recovery:
— We’ve given them to soldiers to fight harder and to children to help them focus.
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157.
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Quote: “At approximately the same time, Charles Bradley, an American psychiatrist, administered Benzedrine to 30 children with behavioral disorders and found a significant improvement in their school and social performance. Bradley published his findings in 1937, but this contribution remained unnoticed by the medical community for a couple of decades. However, his study became the basis for using stimulants for ADHD treatment.
During World War II, soldiers used AMPH and METH pills to endure long fighting journeys, and some became dependent on these substances.”
— In the last 15 years amphetamines have become one of the fastest-growing drug markets in the world, second only to cannabis.
#UNODC (2024): “World drug report: Key findings and conclusions”
https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR_2024/WDR24_Key_findings_and_conclusions.pdf
—They come in three main types: plain amphetamine, methamphetamine, and MDMA. Meth is an extremely potent and addictive version, and MDMA, or ecstasy, has some quite unique effects but today we’ll focus on plain amphetamines – sold on the street as speed or as prescription drugs like Adderall or Vyvanse.
We thank our expert Jaanus Harro for the following comments on this classification, which should not be taken to be meaningful in a pharmacological sense, but rather as three commonly abused drugs with the same “chemical backbone”:
Quote: “MDMA is qualitatively different from amphetamine and methamphetamine, while methamphetamine is, in pharmacological terms, only quantitatively different from amphetamine [...] certain amphetamine analogues without the methyl group can also be qualitatively similar to MDMA, such as parachloroamphetamine. I would say, for example, that three most broadly known and used drugs with this chemical backbone are amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA.”
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157.
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
#Bernstein, Susan; Painter, Kim (2024) : ”Vyvanse or Adderall: What's Better?” WebMD
https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/vyvanse-adderall-difference
Quote: “Vyvanse and Adderall are drugs used by many children and adults to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Both are stimulants called amphetamines.”
Methamphetamine is much more potent than amphetamine:
#Goodwin, J. Shawn et al. (2009): “Amphetamine and Methamphetamine Differentially Affect Dopamine Transporters in Vitro and in Vivo”, Journal of biological chemistry, vol. 284, 5, 2978–2989.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2631950/
Quote: “We find that near the resting potential, METH is more effective than AMPH in stimulating DAT to release DA. In addition, at efficacious concentrations METH generates more current, greater DA efflux, and higher Ca2+ release from internal stores than AMPH. Both METH-induced or the lesser AMPH-induced increase in intracellular Ca2+ are independent of membrane potential. The additional Ca2+ response induced by METH requires intact phosphorylation sites in the N-terminal domain of DAT. Finally, our in vivo voltammetry data indicate that METH inhibits clearance of locally applied DA more effectively than AMPH in the rat nucleus accumbens, which plays an important role in reward and addiction, but not in the dorsal striatum, which is involved in a variety of cognitive functions. Taken together these data imply that AMPH and METH have distinguishable effects on DAT that can be shown both at the molecular level and in vivo, and are likely to be implicated in the relative euphoric and addictive properties of these two psychostimulants.”
Higher potencies are generally correlated with a higher addictiveness and potential for abuse.
—The main effect of amphetamines is to trick your brain to massively increase the levels of dopamine and noradrenaline. Dopamine is the chemical of motivation and excitement – like the rush when you're about to beat that impossible boss in a Souls game. Noradrenaline makes your mind awake, focused, alert and sharp – able to precisely and quickly move your fingers to perform the combo that destroys the boss.
The role of dopamine in motivation is complicated, but it is widely recognized that dopamine release is crucial for motivation.
#Bromberg-Martin, Ethan S.; Matsumoto, Masayuki; Hikosaka, Okihide (2011): “Dopamine in motivational control: rewarding, aversive, and alerting”, Neuron, vol 68, 5, 815–834.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3032992/
Quote: “Dopamine has long been known to be important for reinforcement and motivation of actions. Drugs that interfere with DA transmission interfere with reinforcement learning, while manipulations which enhance DA transmission, such as brain stimulation and addictive drugs, often acts as reinforcers (Wise, 2004). DA transmission is crucial for creating a state of motivation to seek rewards (Berridge and Robinson, 1998; Salamone et al., 2007) and for establishing memories of cue-reward associations (Dalley et al., 2005). DA release is not necessary for all forms of reward learning and may not always be ‘liked’ in the sense of causing pleasure, but it is critical for causing goals to become ‘wanted’ in the sense of motivating actions to achieve them (Berridge and Robinson, 1998; Palmiter, 2008).”
Dopamine is linked to pleasurable sensations but also their anticipation, and therefore to feelings of excitement:
#Wise, Roy Alfred (2004): “Dopamine, learning and motivation”, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 5, 6, 483-94.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8554485_Dopamine_learning_and_motivation
Quote: “One new line of study links midbrain dopamine neurons to error signals that are involved in learning algorithms. Midbrain dopamine neurons are activated by proximal (touch, taste) contact with unexpected rewards. When such events become predictable, the cells begin to respond to the more distal (visual or auditory) stimuli that precede and predict availability of the reward; the cells then stop responding to subsequent contact with the reward. This finding has been interpreted to suggest that brain dopamine is more responsive to predictors of reward than to the receipt of reward.”
#Cleveland Clinic: “Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)” (retrieved 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22610-norepinephrine-noradrenaline
Quote: “Norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline, is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.[...]
As a neurotransmitter in your brain and spinal cord, norepinephrine:
Increases alertness, arousal and attention.
Constricts blood vessels, which helps maintain blood pressure in times of stress.
Affects your sleep-wake cycle, mood and memory.”
#Washington State University (2024): “Drugs and Behavior”, Chapter 8: High-Efficacy Stimulants.
Quote: “Similar to cocaine, amphetamine increases synaptic levels of monoamines such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Amphetamine has a similar chemical structure to monoamines, so instead of blocking transport proteins, amphetamine molecules are actually mistakenly taken into the axon terminal by the reuptake mechanism.
Once inside the nerve terminal, amphetamine increases the release of monoamines while also forcing the transporter proteins to work in reverse. Instead of pumping neurotransmitters out of the synapse, more and more neurotransmitters are pushed into the synapse.”
—On amphetamines you aren’t simply excited, but plugged into a hidden power source. You can quickly absorb and react to everything around you, your attention is locked in the moment, in the best case you enter a state of flow easily. Your mood is lifted and boring tasks seem more engaging – Distractions become less distracting in the face of your goals.
#Cleveland Clinic: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/23039-amphetamines
Quote: “When you take an amphetamine, neurotransmitters put your cells on speed dial to send messages quickly. This causes people to feel:
Alert.
Attentive.
Calm.
Energetic.
Focused.
Happy (joy or euphoria).”
#CAMH: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/amphetamines
Quote: “Amphetamines can make people:
alert, confident and energetic
talkative, restless and excited
feel a sense of power and superiority
tense and nervous
hostile and aggressive.”
—Your heart pounds faster, your breath quickens and sweat beads on your skin, hunger fades and fatigue dissolves.
#CAMH: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/amphetamines
Quote: “Amphetamines reduce hunger and increase breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Larger doses may cause fever, sweating, headache, nausea, blurred vision, very fast or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of co-ordination and collapse.”
—Other stimulants like cocaine peak or fade quickly, maybe crashing you and leaving you more tired than before, but amphetamines lift you up and hold you there for 4 to 14 hours.
#SAMHSA (2021): “Treatment Improvement Protocol: Chapter 3—Medical Aspects of Stimulant Use Disorders”
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK576550/
Quote: “The major differences between cocaine, MA, and prescription stimulants pertain to the rapidity of responses and the duration of their effects (Exhibit 3.3). The sought-after effects of MA can persist for hours, whereas those from cocaine are over in minutes. Effects of prescription stimulants vary by formulation (i.e., short acting versus long acting). [...]
The plasma concentration levels of cocaine peak and decline rapidly, with a half-life of about 60 minutes (Coe et al., 2018). MA plasma concentration levels also peak rapidly but remain high for much longer, with a half-life of about 10 hours across routes of administration (Cruickshank & Dyer, 2009). Typically, the half-life of cocaine is about 60 minutes but can range from 40 to 90 minutes (ARUP Laboratories, 2019). The plasma concentration levels from smoked cocaine both peak and decline rapidly, whereas those from smoked MA also peak relatively rapidly but decline more slowly because metabolism takes longer. Regular repeated use may be more common among people who use cocaine in an attempt to sustain the drug's effects.
The half-lives and peak plasma concentrations of prescription stimulants vary by type (e.g., amphetamine and methylphenidate), brand, and formulation (e.g., short acting and long acting). Time to peak concentration for short-acting formulations of amphetamine ranges from about 2 to 3 hours; for long-acting formulations, it ranges from about 4 to 8 hours (Markowitz & Patrick, 2017).”
—Back in the days Amphetamines used to be prescribed for all kinds of problems – to lose weight, fix your depression or against nasal congestion.
#Washington State University (2024): “Drugs and Behavior”, Chapter 8: High-Efficacy Stimulants.
Quote: “Amphetamine was initially marketed under the name Benzedrine® as a treatment for narcolepsy, obesity, mild depression, and various other medical conditions.”
#Carnwath, Tom (2021): “Stimulants: cocaine, amphetamines and party drugs”, chapter in “Care of Drug Users in General Practice”, edited by Berry Beaumont, CRC Press.
https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Medicine_and_healthcare/Pharmaceutical_medicine/Benzedrine/
Quote: “Benzedrine, a form of amphetamine sulphate originally sold as a nasal decongestant, was widely used as a stimulant by troops during the Second World War. A number of derivatives of amphetamine such as fenfluramine and phentermine were used as appetite suppressants.”
—Nowadays they are mainly prescribed for ADHD – a mental disorder that makes it hard to concentrate on things you find boring and to control your impulses.
#Frankenburg, Frances, R.; Yule, Amy (2019): “Stimulants”, chapter in “Addictions:
Elements, History, Treatments, and Research” edited by Frances R. Frankenburg, Praeger/ABC-CLIO.
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-40424-008
Quote: “Prescription stimulants, such as amphetamines and methylphenidate, are most commonly prescribed to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a neurobehavioral disorder that, in most individuals, begins in childhood and continues into adulthood.”
In more technical terms, ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder. For more information on ADHD:
#CDC: Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (consulted 2025).
https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/about/index.html
—ADHD brains basically are looking for a reward that never comes – amphetamines solve this by providing this reward . Turning a super easily distracted scatter brain into a focused one.
We thank our expert Jaanus Harro for the following comment:
Quote: “[The differences in their brains i]s exactly why ADHD patients can use amphetamine-based medicines - they have slightly different brains. If one with a "usual" brain takes amphetamine, this will be less safe. Of course, the new prescription formulas are also important, they release the drug more slowly.”
#Lakhan, Shaheen E.; Kirchgessner, Annette (2012): “Prescription stimulants in individuals with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: misuse, cognitive impact, and adverse effects”, Brain and behavior, vol. 2, 5, 661–677.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3489818/
Quote: “Although ADHD is a multifactorial disorder, disrupted dopamine (DA) neurotransmission plays an important role in its pathophysiology. In addition, polymorphisms in the dopamine D1 receptor (DRD1) are associated with the disorder (Misener et al. 2004). MPH and d-AMP both enhance DA signaling in the brain. MPH increases DA by blocking dopamine transporters (DATs) and AMP by releasing DA from the nerve terminal using the DAT as carrier (Kuczenski and Segal 1997). In healthy controls and in adolescents and adults with ADHD (Rosa-Neto et al. 2005; Volkow et al. 2007), MPH significantly increased DA in the ventral striatum (VS) (Volkow et al. 2012), a crucial brain region involved with motivation and reward (Wise 2002). Moreover, intravenous MPH-induced increases in DA in the VS were correlated with improvement in symptoms of inattention after long-term oral MPH treatment. Historically, the core feature of ADHD has been characterized as one of attention deficit, but increasing evidence suggests that a reward and motivation deficit may be of equal importance.”
—In the last decades ADHD diagnoses in kids and adults in the US have skyrocketed leading to an unprecedented amount of prescription amphetamines.
Data are varied and often inconsistent in the actual prevalence numbers, but all of them show an unequivocal upward trend.
#CDC: “Facts About ADHD Throughout the Years” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/adhd-throughout-the-years.html
#Chung, Winsteon et al. (2019): “Trends in the Prevalence and Incidence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among Adults and Children of Different Racial and Ethnic Groups”, JAMA Network Open, vol. 2, 11.
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2753787
The incidence since our latest prevalence data has been rising and falling.
#Paul, Margaret S. (2025): “Incidence of Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Between 2016 and 2023: A Retrospective Cohort”, Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice.
https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.prcp.20240121
At 2007, the levels were similar to those in the 70s, the other peak of prescription amphetamine consumption
#Rasmussen, Nicolas (2008): “America’s First Amphetamine Epidemic 1929–1971
A Quantitative and Qualitative Retrospective With Implications for the Present”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 98, 974-985.
https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2007.110593
Quote: “Retrospective epidemiology indicates that the absolute prevalence of both nonmedical stimulant use and stimulant dependence or abuse have reached nearly the same levels today as at the epidemic’s peak around 1969. Further parallels between epidemics past and present, including evidence that consumption of prescribed amphetamines has also reached the same absolute levels today as at the original epidemic’s peak, suggest that stricter limits on pharmaceutical stimulants must be considered in any efforts to reduce amphetamine abuse today.”
Yet stimulant prescriptions seem to have been rising even from that level
#Moran, Lauren et al.(2019): “Psychosis with Methylphenidate or Amphetamine in Patients with ADHD”, New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 380, 1128-1138.
Quote: “In Panel B, the number of patients who entered the cohort in 2015 is lower than in other years because cohort entry ended on September 30, 2015 (the time of the transition from the 9th revision of the International Classification of Diseases to the 10th revision). The bars in Panel B represent the number of patients who started taking a stimulant, according to year of cohort entry; the dotted and solid lines represent the number of psychotic episodes according to year of cohort entry.”
#IQVIA Government Solutions (2023): “Stimulant Prescription Trends in the United States From 2012-2022”
Official sources and some studies establish a link between the rise in ADHD diagnoses and the rise in prescription stimulant use and misuse.
#SAMHSA (2021): “Prescription stimulant misuse and prevention among youth and young adults”
https://library.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/pep21-06-01-003.pdf
Quote: “Rates of prescription stimulant use and misuse vary by demographic characteristics. Increases in prescription stimulant use may be attributable to increases in the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses in the United States.”
#Vaddadi, Sneha M. (2021): “Rise, and pronounced regional variation, in methylphenidate, amphetamine, and lisdexamfetamine distribution in the United States”, PeerJ, vol. 9.
https://peerj.com/articles/12619/
Quote: “The rising amphetamine and lisdexamfetamine distribution may correspond with a rise in adult ADHD diagnoses.”
The mechanism behind the increase in ADHD diagnosis is uncertain
#Abdelnour, Elie; Jansen, Madeline O.; Gold, Jessica A. (2022): “ADHD Diagnostic Trends: Increased Recognition or Overdiagnosis?” , Missouri medicine, vol.119, 5, 467–473.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9616454/
Quote: “ADHD is not a new phenomenon, however its prevalence has increased significantly in the recent years. Given changing diagnostic criteria and increasing awareness of the disorder in marginalized populations, especially individuals of color and females, this finding is not surprising. The general public has become increasingly more aware of ADHD through the media and social media. People are more likely to bring up their concerns to a physician, which in turn might prompt more numbers of people to be diagnosed. While some may argue that the increase is concerning and due to intentional feigning of symptoms in order to gain access to stimulant medication or test accommodations, the evidence suggests these groups have a negligible impact on diagnostic trends.”
—But Amphetamines aren’t just drugs – they are tools. Performance enhancing tools, perfectly aligned with our most mainstream ambitions.
#Pedersen, Willy; Sandberg, Sveinung; Copes, Heith (2014): “High Speed: Amphetamine Use in the Context of Conventional Culture”, Deviant Behavior, vol. 36.
Quote: “Similarly, research on college students who misuse prescription psycho-stimulants, such as Adderall, finds that these students are motivated by the desire to do well in school and believe such behaviors are acceptable when not done in excess. In short, some use of amphetamines is consistent with conventional values of success and moderation. [...]
One amphetamine user, who was working as a painter, explained: “I love working. Amphetamine is about increased effort, keeping the speed up. I really worked bloody efficient.” [...]
While illegal drug use is often coined as transgressive, irresponsible, and immoral (Boyd 2004), we found another dimension to drug use among those we interviewed. They pointed to the many benefits it provided them at work; namely, it allowed them to be more productive workers, better students, and better care takers. In this way, use of amphetamines was embedded in conventional work ethics.”
#Kerley, Kent R; Copes, Heith; Griffin, O. Hayden (2015): “Middle-Class Motives for Non-Medical Prescription Stimulant Use among College Students”, Deviant Behavior, vol. 36.
Quote: “Using semi-structured interviews with 22 college students who misused prescription stimulants, we find that they draw on conventional middle-class beliefs (e.g., success and moderation) to make sense of their drug use. They do this by creating identities as people who are focused on success and use stimulants only as a tool to perform their best. [...]
They use excuses and justifications rooted in middle-class values to create symbolic boundaries between themselves (as legitimate users) and others (as hedonistic users). This allows them to persist with their illegal behaviors while maintaining an identity as conventional citizens.”
However, the degree to which amphetamines actually help healthy people achieve their long-term goals or perform complex tasks is unclear, with some studies showing no significant improvements in performance:
#Francis, Alyssa (2020): “Outcomes and predictors of prescription stimulants misuse in college students with and without ADHD”, PhD Thesis, University of Rhode Island
https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2160&context=oa_diss
Quote: "Although research in this area is limited, Munro, Weyandt, Marraccini, and Oster (2016) explored the role of non-medical use of prescription stimulants (NMUPS) on the relationship between executive function (EF) and academic performance. Findings revealed that NMUPS did not have a significant effect on academic outcomes as measured by GPA, although EF deficits were associated with lower GPA and greater prescription stimulant misuse. These findings suggest prescription stimulant misuse may not provide the academic boost college students often desire."
#Bowman, Elisabeth et al. (2023): “Not so smart? “Smart” drugs increase the level but decrease the quality of cognitive effort”, Science Advances, vol. 9, 24
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.add4165
— And if they manage to keep you awake and focused better than coffee or energy drinks, why not get your daily performance boost with a dose of amphetamines? They’re made in labs, prescribed by doctors, and safely taken by millions after all!
This is meant to be a “stream of consciousness” from the point of view of a person that justifies their own amphetamine use and not a factual statement.
—So their legal and illegal use has surged in many workplaces, particularly in very stressful or highly competitive industries that require long hours and intense focus. From tech to finance bros, from cooks or truck-drivers to surgeons or nurses. In the US alone more than 4 million people illegally use prescription stimulants.
#Pedersen, Willy; Sandberg, Sveinung; Copes, Heith (2015); “High Speed: Amphetamine Use in the Context of Conventional Culture”, Deviant Behavior, vol. 36.
Quote: “While the most typical work-related use of amphetamines was among males in blue-collar jobs, some use was also observed among those in the middle class (although still within the culture of work-life). These amphetamine users also pointed to the benefit of amphetamine for providing energy and making it possible to work longer hours. But they also described how using small dosages of amphetamines made them “concentrate” and be able to “sit down and think.””
#SAMHSA (2023): “Results from the 2022 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables”
—Especially college students have started to rely on them more and more – not to party, but to push for better grades. Concentrating and studying are hard enough on their own, but even more so in times where short form videos and endless scrolling have nuked our attention spans. Some believe they have undiagnosed ADHD, that their struggle to concentrate is a flaw that needs chemical fixing, or they simply want an easy edge to achieve more.
#Francis, Alyssa (2020): “Outcomes and Predictors of prescription stimulant misuse in college students with and without ADHD” PhD thesis, University of Rhode Island.
https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2160&context=oa_diss
Quote: “In recent years, prescription stimulant misuse, defined as the nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NMUPS) for purposes other than prescribed (Weyandt et al., 2014), has increased substantially among college students without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the United States and abroad (Dussault & Weyandt, 2013; Gudmundsdottir, Weyandt, & Ernudottir, 2016; McCabe, West, Teter, & Boyd, 2014; SAMHSA, 2018; Verdi, Weyandt, & Zavras, 2014; Weyandt et al, 2013).
[...]
Academic motives, including help with concentration in class, help with homework completion, and increased performance on tests are most commonly cited as motivators for stimulant misuse among college students (Arria et al., 2008; Benson et al., 2015; Weyandt et al., 2009; 2013). In a systematic review of the literature, Weyandt and colleagues (2013) found that more than 15 studies documented academic enhancement as a reason for students’ reported misuse. Specifically, students most commonly reported using prescription stimulants to enhance focus or alertness, improve academic performance, and perform better on schoolwork (Bossaer et al., 2013; Marraccini et al., 2016; Weyandt et al. 2009).”
#Butler, Stephen F. et al. (2021): “Non-medical Use of Prescription Stimulants Among College Students: Non-oral Routes of Administration, Risk Factors, Motivations, and Pathways”, Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 12.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.667118/full
Quote: “Nearly half (47.7%) of all respondents listed enhancing work or school performance as a motivation for prescription stimulant NMU, 23.3% for increased energy, and 14.6% for getting high or enhancing the effect of other drugs.”
#Kerley, Kent R; Copes, Heith; Griffin, O. Hayden (2015): “Middle-Class Motives for Non-Medical Prescription Stimulant Use among College Students”, Deviant Behavior, vol. 36.
Quote: “Another important finding is that many students claim that their use of Adderall and similar drugs is justifiable because they have symptoms of ADHD and are capable of self-diagnosis (DeSantis and Hane 2010; DeSantis, Noar, and Webb 2008, 2010)”
—The dark side of amphetamines comes in two flavors: Unpleasant side effects and serious health risks.
Please note that decorations like smileys on tablets are most commonly used for MDMA, a different type of amphetamine whose health effects we are not covering in this video. We took some artistic liberty in depicting the pills this way.
—The least negative bad experience may be that amphetamines work, just not for the right thing. Instead of finally writing the paper that is due tomorrow you hyperfocus on grinding your game. And then the day is over. Congrats on the new item, but you will still fail your class.
There have been anecdotal accounts of this effect reported in ADHD forums:
#Benešovská, Barbora (2021): “Finding Balance with Adderall: Responsibilization Discourses in Online Fora”, Diploma thesis, Univerzita Karlova.
https://dspace.cuni.cz/handle/20.500.11956/151306
Quote: “In the accounts which deal with the drug not working as it should people share their frustration over the medication not helping or even worsening the symptoms of ADHD. These accounts bring forth complaints about procrastination, hyper focusing on unimportant things, feeling sleepy, fatigued, lethargic and unmotivated.”
We thank our expert Jaanus Harro for confirming this effect is also possible in healthy people.
—More serious is that noradrenaline puts your body into fight or flight mode,
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Quote: “ATS act as indirect monoamine agonists by releasing dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline, and adrenaline”
#Cleveland Clinic: “Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)” (retrieved 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22610-norepinephrine-noradrenaline
Quote: “Norepinephrine is part of your sympathetic nervous system, which is part of your body’s emergency response system to danger — the “fight-or-flight” response. Medically, the flight-or-flight response is known as the acute stress response.”
—which can make you feel nervous, tense, and on the edge. Your heart beats faster and your breaths are shorter. Which is exactly how your body feels when you experience anxiety or panic. Suddenly you feel extremely worried or can’t stop ruminating. If you are already pretty stressed or anxious this can worsen your anxiety or even lead to a full blown panic attack.
The sympathetic nervous system controls the fight-or-flight response of the body.
#Cleveland Clinic: “Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)” (retrieved 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23262-sympathetic-nervous-system-sns-fight-or-flight
Quote: “Your sympathetic nervous system is part of your autonomic nervous system. It could be called your “automatic” nervous system, as it is responsible for many functions that you don’t have to think about to control. This can include control of your heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, urination and sweating, among other functions.
Your sympathetic nervous system is best known for its role in responding to dangerous or stressful situations. In these situations, your sympathetic nervous system activates to speed up your heart rate, deliver more blood to areas of your body that need more oxygen or other responses to help your get out of danger.[...]
Your sympathetic nervous system controls your “fight-or-flight” response. Danger or stress activates your sympathetic nervous system, which can cause several things to happen in your body.”
Amphetamines are sympathomimetic drugs, meaning that they mimic the effects of the sympathetic nervous system activation in the body.
#APA Dictionary of Psychology: “Sympathomimetic drug”
https://dictionary.apa.org/sympathomimetic-drug
Quote: “Sympathomimetic drug: any pharmacological agent that stimulates activity in the sympathetic nervous system because it potentiates the activity of norepinephrine or epinephrine or has effects similar to these neurotransmitters (hence it is also known as an adrenergic drug). Sympathomimetic drugs include the amphetamines and ephedrine.”
This can cause people to become anxious and irritable, as well as cause cardiovascular effects, among others:
#CAMH: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/amphetamines
Quote: “Amphetamines reduce hunger and increase breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Larger doses may cause fever, sweating, headache, nausea, blurred vision, very fast or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of coordination and collapse.”
#McKetin, Rebecca et al. (2019): “Mental health outcomes associated with of the use of amphetamines: A systematic review and meta-analysis”, EClinicalMedicine, vol. 16, 81-97.
Quote:“Acute intoxication can induce panic and agitation, and it is plausible that the sympathetic arousal produced by intoxication may exacerbate anxiety. However, inconsistencies between individual study outcomes have prevented a clear understanding about the strength or nature of these associations.”
We have been aware of the effect of panic attacks through anecdotal accounts. We thank our expert Jaanus Harro for the following comment on the specific panic attack effect:
Quote: “Probably not common but can well be true.”
—On the other hand your motivation can overshoot. Your patience shrinks to almost zero and you can feel wired and very annoyed at people because they speak and think too slowly. Making you jittery and pretty unpleasant to others. Amphetamines also make you numb towards the needs of your body. So it is easy to forget that you need to drink, eat and sleep. You may suddenly realize that you are totally dehydrated, tired and shaky after after neglecting your body's needs for hours and hours. And while amphetamines lengthen the time you can stay awake and be productive, if you took them too late in the day or too much, it may just be impossible to get to sleep as your brain can’t stop racing. Making you exhausted the next day – tempting you to solve the problem with another dose. If you take too much all the enhancing effects can reverse, leaving you nervous, restless, obsessively overthinking or outright unable to focus on anything.
#Berman, Steven M. (2009): “Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: a review”, Molecular psychiatry, vol 14, 2, 123–142.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2670101/
Quote: “Adverse effects listed in drug labels of prescription amphetamines include disturbances of mood and behavior in addition to cardiac and gastrointestinal effects. Most of these adverse events are considered “time-limited”, resolving rapidly after discontinuation of stimulant exposure. The most common drug-related effects are loss of appetite, insomnia, emotional lability, nervousness and fever. The American Academy of Pediatrics also lists jitteriness and social withdrawal as common side-effects of amphetamines in children.”
#Lakhan, Shaheen E.; Kirchgessner, Annette (2012): “Prescription stimulants in individuals with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: misuse, cognitive impact, and adverse effects”, Brain and behavior, vol. 2, 5, 661–677.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3489818/
Quote: “Additional potential ADRs associated with stimulant use are important to note including abdominal pain, anorexia, constipation, dizziness, dry mouth, headache, insomnia, jitteriness, irritability, nausea, and palpitations.”
#CAMH: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/amphetamines
Quote: “Amphetamines can make people:
alert, confident and energetic
talkative, restless and excited
feel a sense of power and superiority
tense and nervous
hostile and aggressive.
In children who are hyperactive, however, amphetamines and related drugs, in the correct doses, can have a calming effect.
Amphetamines reduce hunger and increase breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Larger doses may cause fever, sweating, headache, nausea, blurred vision, very fast or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of co-ordination and collapse.”
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157.
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
We have been made aware of the paradoxical effects of prescription amphetamines like “not being able to concentrate on anything” through anecdotal accounts. We thanks our expert Jaanus Harro for the following confirming comment:
Quote: “Yes, this is all over psychopharmacology, not just amphetamine ... paradoxical effects do occur.”
—Some prescription amphetamines like Vyvanse stay active in your system for up to 14 hours. So if you have a bad trip you may have to wait it out.
Vyvanse is one of the commercial names of lisdexamfetamine.
#FDA: “Vyvanse consumer information” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/208510lbl.pdf
#Ermer, James C., Pennick, Michael; Frick, Glen (2016): “Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy”, Clinical Drug Investigation, vol. 36, 341–356.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40261-015-0354-y
Quote: “The therapeutic action of LDX extends to at least 13 h post-dose in children and 14 h post-dose in adults, longer than that reported for any other long-acting formulation.”
— And the come down can also be pretty harsh – after hours of being bathed in dopamine and noradrenaline their levels drop suddenly. You may feel extreme fatigue, your mood can crash, leaving you feeling low energy and depressed. You may experience a fresh boost of anxiety as your brain tries to rebalance itself.
#Rincón-Cortés, Millie et al. (2018): ”Diazepam reverses increased anxiety-like behavior, social behavior deficit, and dopamine dysregulation following withdrawal from acute amphetamine” Neuropsychopharmacology vol. 43, 2418–2425.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-018-0123-8
Quote: “Amphetamine withdrawal (AMPH-W) is accompanied by symptoms of anxiety and depression in humans and rodents, which are commonly associated with DA system dysfunction. Although most studies have focused on the negative affective state after withdrawal from long-term (i.e., chronic) drug administration, the negative affective state appears even after a drug is taken for the first time.”
#Shoptaw, Steve et al.(2009): “Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal” Cochrane database of systematic reviews
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24281580_Treatment_for_amphetamine_withdrawal
Quote: “The DSM-IV-TR criteria for diagnosing amphetamine withdrawal include dysphoric
mood and two or more symptoms: fatigue, vivid or unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, increased appetite and psychomotor agitation or retardation that occur following discontinuation of the drug (DSM-IV-TR 2000). Clinically, amphetamine dependent individuals in acute withdrawal report feeling “severe dysphoria, irritability and melancholia, anxiety, hypersomnia and marked fatigue, intense craving for the drug and paranoia.””
—And of course, there is addiction.
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Quote: “ATS have a high potential for abuse and dependence due to their hedonic effects and the rapid development of tolerance, making users escalate doses and frequency of consumption. ATS users experience intense withdrawal symptoms after stopping their use. Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, tremors, chills, sweating, increased appetite, insomnia, fatigue, lethargy, depression, anxiety, and intense craving (overwhelming desire or urge to consume the drug). The severity of symptoms correlates to the level of dependence. There is a high incidence of relapses among ATS users26.
The treatment for stimulant use disorder, which includes ATS, depends on the severity of the addiction and the individual's specific needs. No approved pharmacological treatments for ATS addiction exist, but some medications can alleviate withdrawal symptoms. Behavioral therapy is the most effective treatment for AMPHs dependence.
The clinically of ATS medications for ADHD is safe, and its efficacy is well documented, providing that these substances are used by prescription, at the proper doses, and under medical supervision. However, if medical ATS are misused, that is, at higher doses, by different administration routes, or at intervals shorter than those prescribed, they can develop an addiction.”
—First of all, constant artificial dopamine highs can totally disrupt your emotional baseline.
Even in cases where there is no diagnosis of amphetamine use disorder or amphetamine “addiction”, people who use amphetamines have a higher likelihood of experiencing mood disorders like depression:
#McKetin, Rebecca et al. (2019): “Mental health outcomes associated with of the use of amphetamines: A systematic review and meta-analysis”, EClinicalMedicine, vol. 16, 81-97.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336611648_Mental_health_outcomes_associated_with_of_the_use_of_amphetamines_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis
Quote: “Any use of amphetamines was associated with 1.6 times the odds of depression, an association that was smaller (AOR 1.3) but more consistent for studies that adjusted for demographics, other substance use and premorbid risk (Table 2). This association was
supported by good quality evidence including large population surveys and cohort studies.”
—If you take amphetamines regularly you build a tolerance, needing higher doses to achieve the same effects. Which raises the risk for all the negative effects. Maybe at the beginning amphetamines were the solution to finally do your homework, but after a while you just feel completely unable to study or work at all without the boost they give you. It can be hard to get back to your normal baseline afterwards.
#CAMH: “Amphetamines” (retrieved 2025)
https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/amphetamines
Quote: “Regular non-medical use of amphetamines can lead to tolerance. This means that the person needs to take more and more of the drug to get the desired effect.”
#Strakowski, Stephen M. et al (2001): “Human Response to Repeated Low-Dose d-Amphetamine: Evidence for Behavioral Enhancement and Tolerance”, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 25, 548–554.
https://www.nature.com/articles/1395696
Quote: “In summary, we observed significant progressive increases in some subjective behavioral ratings following repeated d-amphetamine administration, which may serve as a human model for behavioral sensitization. However, a decrease or tolerance to drug liking also seemed to occur, suggesting a separate process from these other behavioral ratings.”
#Handelman, Kenneth; Sumiya, Fernando (2022): ”Tolerance to Stimulant Medication for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Literature Review and Case Report”, Brain sciences, vol.12,8, 959.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9332474/
Quote: “Treatment of ADHD with stimulant medicine is generally effective and can help for many years. Research shows that some patients develop an “early tolerance” to these medicines, meaning they have an initial good response but the benefits wear off within days or weeks; some patients may develop more gradual or “late tolerance” to stimulants, where the benefits are lost over months or years of treatment; some patients also develop “complete tolerance” with a substantial or complete loss of clinical benefit to stimulants; some patients may develop “partial tolerance” with a partial loss of clinical benefit. There is insufficient research to clearly define clinical tolerance to stimulant medication in ADHD, and there are suggestions in the literature on strategies that may help, such as switching classes of stimulants (from MPH to AMPH and vice versa) to reset the tolerance or taking medication holidays and reassessing clinically for comorbid conditions or other clinical factors which may affect treatment response. There is a clear biological basis for stimulant medication tolerance, and the lack of sufficient research and guidelines may suppress recognition of this significant clinical issue and negatively impact patient outcomes. More research is needed and clinical guidelines should be updated to provide more guidance to clinicians on how to identify and manage tolerance to stimulant medication.”
—The flood of chemicals that boosts your brain can overwhelm it, mixing noise and signal and turning clarity into chaos, leading to psychosis – you can no longer tell for sure what is real and what is not. Typical symptoms are bizarre thoughts, hallucinations and paranoia. In most cases they fade once the drug wears off. But sometimes they stay for months, and for a minority of people they can evolve into full-fledged schizophrenia, changing your life forever.
There is strong evidence that amphetamine use can produce psychosis and develop into schizophrenia.
#McKetin, Rebecca et al. (2019): “Mental health outcomes associated with of the use of amphetamines: A systematic review and meta-analysis”, EClinicalMedicine, vol. 16, 81-97.
Quote: “Any use of amphetamines was associated with double the odds of psychosis, while an amphetamine use disorder was associated with three times the odds (Table 2). Most evidence was derived from high quality cross-sectional studies. Significant associations were observed in a range of settings (criminal justice, drug treatment, psychiatric population-level hospital admissions). Associations were also significant in studies that adjusted for other substance use, demographics and pre-existing psychotic disorders (Table 2).[...]
Longitudinal cohort studies found a dose-related increase in psychotic symptoms during periods when amphetamines were being used, and an increased risk of schizophrenia subsequent to the onset of an amphetamine use disorder relative to the general population. However, Rognli et al. did not find a significant relationship between amphetamine use disorders and subsequent primary psychosis among people released from prison (although subsequent substance-induced psychosis was elevated).”
It manifests as paranoia and hallucinations and it can last for weeks or even months:
#MSD Manual (2022): “Amphetamines” (Professional version)
https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/illicit-drugs-and-intoxicants/amphetamines
Quote:“A paranoid psychosis may result from long-term use of amphetamines; rarely, the psychosis is precipitated by a single high dose or by repeated moderate doses. Typical features include delusions of persecution, ideas of reference (notions that everyday occurrences have special meaning or significance personally meant for or directed to the patient), and feelings of omnipotence. Some users experience a prolonged depression, during which suicide is possible.
Recovery from even prolonged amphetamine psychosis is usual but is slow. The more florid symptoms fade within a few days or weeks, but some confusion, memory loss, and delusional ideas commonly persist for months.”
The increase in psychotic symptoms is not only observed only for illegal amphetamines, but also for prescription amphetamines, specially at higher doses:
#Moran, Lauren V. et al.(2024): “Risk of Incident Psychosis and Mania With Prescription Amphetamines”, American journal of psychiatry, vol. 181, 10, 901–909.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39262211/
Quote: “Among 1,374 case subjects and 2,748 control subjects, the odds of psychosis and mania were increased for individuals with past-month prescription amphetamine use compared with no use (adjusted odds ratio=2.68, 95% CI=1.90-3.77). A dose-response relationship was observed; high doses of amphetamines (>30 mg dextroamphetamine equivalents) were associated with 5.28-fold increased odds of psychosis or mania. Past-month methylphenidate use was not associated with increased odds of psychosis or mania compared with no use (adjusted odds ratio=0.91, 95% CI=0.54-1.55).”
The mechanism is related to the increase of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in synapses, but also to GABAergic neuron dysfunction. It usually resumes with use, but it can stay for much longer and even develop into schizophrenia”
#Mullen, Jeff M.; Richards, John R.; Crawford, Adam T. (2023): “StatPearls: Amphetamine-Related Psychiatric Disorders”
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482368
Quote: “Most agree that psychosis following amphetamine use is characterized by persecutory delusions, visual hallucinations, and symptoms resembling acute psychosis most commonly observed in schizophrenia.[...]
Amphetamines inhibit monoamine (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin) reuptake, leading to increased monoamine concentrations in the neuronal synapse. Amphetamines can also lead to increased monoamines in the cytosol by interactions with vesicular monoamine transporter 2. Dopamine and norepinephrine release in the nucleus accumbens results in a feeling of euphoria and a reward feedback loop, which may result in addiction. In vivo studies found changes in the prefrontal cortex of rats exposed to repeated amphetamine use. This leads to a change in cognitive-behavioral function, which is thought to be a precursor to primary psychosis
Studies also suggest increased dopaminergic pathways lead to glutamate excesses in the cerebral cortex, altering the function of cortical GABAergic neurons. This damage leads to dysregulation of glutamate in the cerebral cortex, a precursor to psychosis. Prior psychiatric studies have found that GABAergic cortical dysfunction seems to relate to schizophrenia.[...]
Compared to schizophrenic psychosis, amphetamine-induced acute psychosis appears to demonstrate a more rapid recovery. It also seems to resolve with substance abstinence; however, this recovery may be incomplete. Research out of Japan has provided evidence that amphetamine-induced psychosis may actually have a much longer recovery period, even up to several years.”
However, the exact causal relationship between psychosis, schizophrenia and amphetamine use is not yet completely clear.
#Borger Rognli, Eline; Bramness, Jørgen G.(2015): “Understanding the Relationship Between Amphetamines and Psychosis”, Current Addiction Reports, Collection Dual Diagnosis, vol. 2, 285–292.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40429-015-0077-4
Quote: “Use of amphetamine and methamphetamine (hereafter amphetamines) can cause acute psychotic symptoms and may also contribute to persistent psychotic conditions such as schizophrenia. Still, much remains uncertain about the mechanisms and nature of this relationship. In this paper, we review certain aspects of this relationship, with particular emphasis on papers published during the past 3 years. A review of the literature reveals that, in addition to the established knowledge that amphetamines can cause acute psychotic symptoms, more evidence has emerged that amphetamines may play a role also in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Determining causality for the amphetamine-psychosis association has, however, proven complicated. Reversed causality may be the case, as may be the notion that both use of amphetamines and psychosis reciprocally affect each other with deteriorating effects on both conditions. Clinical features like sensitization to amphetamines precipitating psychosis, that even amphetamine-induced psychosis may persist, and diagnostic transition from amphetamine-induced to primary psychosis suggest a continuous and mutual interaction between individual vulnerability, amphetamine exposure, and psychosis”
—Amphetamines speed up your heart and over time even mild increases in blood pressure can damage vessel walls, causing them to thicken, narrow, and lose elasticity, which forces your heart to work harder. If you use them long term this can lead to serious complications like cardiac arrest or irregular heartbeat. And in high enough doses, especially mixed with other stimulants like cocaine, amphetamines can trigger heart attacks, tear open major arteries or burst blood vessels in your brain, leading to strokes – even in young people.
#Paz-Ramos, Miguel I.; Cruz, Silvia L.; Violante-Soria, Valeria (2023): "Amphetamine-type Stimulants: Novel Insights into their Actions and use Patterns”, Revista de investigación clínica, vol. 75, 3, 143-157
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0034-83762023000300143&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Quote: “Acutely, AMPHs and cathinones have sympathomimetic actions in the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate and blood pressure. Repeated use of AMPHs could produce hypertension, tachycardia, and coronary artery disease. All these features are related to blood vessel wall damage ranging from vascular fatigue to atherosclerosis and vessel rupture.
Other secondary effects of vascular damage are aneurysms and cerebral vasculitis, which lead to ischemia and infarction. Hypertension, cerebral vasculitis, and vasoconstriction can trigger hemorrhagic strokes (intracerebral and subarachnoid) predominantly in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia of young adult AMPHs users. Stroke occurrence (usually mini strokes) depends on the doses and time of drug use. The first signs of an AMPH-induced stroke are headache, vomiting, and confusion. In addition, transient neurological symptoms can appear (paresthesia, language problems, and visual deficiencies).”
#Westover, Arthur N.; Nakonezny Paul A. (2010): “Aortic Dissection in Young Adults Who Abuse Amphetamines”, American heart journal, vol.160, 2, 315–321.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2924822/
Quote: “In a multiple logistic regression analysis, while controlling for known risk factors, amphetamine abuse/dependence was significantly associated with aortic dissection (adjusted odds ratio = 3.33; 95% CI=2.37—4.69, p < 0.0001).”
#Riad Abouzid, Mohamed (2024): “Amphetamine-associated ventricular tachycardia leading to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in a patient with ADHD: A case report”, Medical Reports, vol. 3, 100031
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949918623000311
#Drug Interaction Checker: “Adderall (amphetamine/dextroamphetamine) × cocaine nasal) (used 2025)
https://www.drugs.com/interaction/list/?drug_list=190-1645,3966-0
Quote: “Using amphetamine together with cocaine nasal may occasionally cause irregular heart rhythm that can be life-threatening. Close monitoring by the doctor may be required during treatment with these medications. It is important to tell your doctor about all other medications you use, including vitamins and herbs. Do not stop using any medications without first talking to your doctor.”
—How likely is this to happen? Today it seems that low-dose prescription use over the short term is relatively low risk while chronic and especially heavy use is probably harmful.
We thank our expert Jaanus Harro for the following comment:
Quote: “ADHD brain is different and likely to do much better with amphetamine, but this does not imply others will be as well off.”
Google Sites
Report abuse