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I'm curious if anybody knows if Sea salp can be kept in an aquarium if it's kept at the appropriate temperature and salinity and i feed them phytoplankton. If so are there any guides out there, or sources of salp for non-research purposes?

When microscopic algae proliferate, salps devour them with extraordinary efficiency. They are the fastest-growing multi-cellular animals and are capable of explosive, asexual reproduction, cloning themselves and creating chains of dozens of individuals.

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Invisibility in the water column is a crucial strategy for gelatinous zooplanktons in avoiding detection by visual predators, especially for animals distributed in the euphotic zone during the daytime; i.e., surface dwellers that do not undergo diel vertical migration. Salps, a member of the subphylum Tunicata (Urochordata), usually have a transparent body that is entirely covered with a cellulosic matrix, called the tunic. Some non-migrator species are known to exhibit a nano-scale nipple array on the tunic surface. However, the physical properties of the salp tunic has been poorly investigated, except for Thetys vagina, in which the tunic was expected to show low reflectance based on the refractive index of the tunic. Pegea confoederata is a non-vertical migrant salp showing pinkish-brown body. We measured the hardness, water content, absorption spectra, and refractive index of its tunic to evaluate its fragility and visibility.

Pegea confoederata is a salp often distributed in the euphotic zone during the daytime, i.e. they are non-vertical migrants, and often has pinkish/brownish body (Fig. 1a). The rather conspicuous body color of this species may suggest that the reduction of visibility against the potential visual predator for them may not be important for the survival of this species. In the present study, we examined the detailed physical properties of the tunic of P. confoederata, i.e., hardness, light absorption, and refractive index. Based on the refractive index and the surface structure of the tunic, we simulated light reflectance on the 3-dimensional models of the tunic surface to determine how the salps appear in a bright water column.

Tunic pieces were cut from the glutaraldehyde-fixed salps using a razor blade. The specimens were rinsed with 0.45 M sucrose and 0.1 M cacodylate buffer (pH 7.5) and post-fixed with 1% osmium tetroxide in a 0.1 M cacodylate buffer (pH 7.5) at 4C for 1.5 h. Specimens were dehydrated through an ethanol series. For scanning electron microscope (SEM), the dehydrated specimens (two individuals) were immersed in t-butanol, freeze-dried in a t-butanol freeze dryer (VFD-21S; Vacuum Device), sputter-coated with gold-palladium, and examined under a scanning electron microscope (JSM-6060LV; JEOL) at 15 kV. For transmission electron microscope (TEM), the dehydrated specimens (two individuals) were cleared with n-butyl glycidyl ether and embedded in an epoxy resin (Epon 812, TAAB Laboratories). Thin sections at approximately right angle to the surface were stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate, and examined in a transmission electron microscope (JEM1011, JEOL) at 80 kV. The heights and intervals of the cuticular protrusions were measured from electron micrographs.

Three frozen salps were thawed at room temperature. A tunic piece was cut from the middle part of the body. After briefly blotting excess water on a paper towel, the tunic specimens were weighted (wet weight), and thickness of the specimen was measured with a vernier caliper. Then, the specimen was sandwiched with two acrylic plates (5 mm thick) with a hole (3 mm diameter). A pin attachment (TP-20, IMADA Co., Ltd., Toyohashi, Japan) was mounted to a digital force gauge DS2-5 N (IMADA Co., Ltd.) that was fixed on a lever test stand FCA-50 N (IMADA Co., Ltd.). The pin was a steel rod (1 mm diameter) with a flat tip. Pulling down the lever of the test stand, the force gauge with the pin came down perpendicularly and the pin pierced the tunic specimen between the acryl plates through the holes. The maximum force to pierce the specimen was recorded at five separate points randomly selected within each specimen, and the median was regarded as the hardness of each specimen. The measured values of hardness vary depending on the method, such as the shape of the attachment of the force gauge, and thus, the values are comparable with those obtained by the same method. After the measurement above, each specimen was dried in an oven at 60 C for 3 days and weighed (dry weight). The water content (%) in the tunic specimens was obtained from a ratio of dry weight to wet weight.

The pillar model always has the smallest reflectance among the three forms of the models, although the ultrastructure of nipple array appears more similar to the cone or two-tier than the pillar. This indicates that the form of nipple array is not optimized for anti-reflection in P. confoederata, as well as the other nipple arrays so far reported in salps [5, 6, 9, 16]. Cone (or two-tier) may be more structurally robust than pillar-shaped nipple array. It is also possible that the tunicates are not able to produce pillar-shaped protuberances on the tunic surface, although the mechanism of the biosynthesis of nipple array remains unresolved.

Salps belong to the Tunicates. They are chordates without ceolom, segmentation or bony tissue. They look a bit like jellyfish, but taxonomically they are actually closer to humans than to jellyfish. Unlike other Tunicates, salps are planktonic.

In an optimal environment, salps grow very quickly and large swarms form, mainly by asexual reproduction. Individual growth of a temperate species is as fast as a 10% increase in body length per hour. This species requires only 48 hours to complete their whole lifecycle. Sub-Arctic species are slower growing due to low ambient temperatures. No data exists on growth rates of Antarctic species.

Salps are eaten by fish. They have also been found in the stomachs of albatrosses and seals. Salps are 95% water. They are not nutritious enough to sustain seabirds or marine mammals that require high-energy foods. These species probably only eat salps when their main food supplies are scarce.

The main inspiration of SSA is the swarming behaviour of salps when navigating and foraging in oceans. Read this webpage to know more about the inspiration:

This is the source codes of the paper:

S. Mirjalili, A.H. Gandomi, S.Z. Mirjalili, S. Saremi, H. Faris, S.M. Mirjalili, Salp Swarm Algorithm: A bio-inspired optimizer for engineering design problems, Advances in Engineering Software, in-press, DOI:

If you have no access to the paper, please drop me an email at ali.mirjalili@gmail.com and I will send you the paper.

All of the source codes and extra information as well as more optimization techniques can be found in my personal website at

I have a number of relevant courses in this area. You can enrol via the following links with 95% discount:

Reporting this week in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), the scientists have found that mid-ocean-dwelling salps are capable of capturing and eating extremely small organisms as well as larger ones, rendering them even hardier--and perhaps more plentiful--than had been believed.

The finding helps explain how salps--which can exist either singly or in "chains" that may contain a hundred or more--are able to survive in the open ocean where the supply of larger food particles is low.

Perhaps most significantly, the result enhances the importance of the salps' role in carbon cycling. As they eat small, as well as large, particles, "they consume the entire 'microbial loop' and pack it into large, dense fecal pellets," Madin says.

"The most important aspect of this work is the very effective shortcut that salps introduce in the process of particle aggregation," Stocker said. "Typically, aggregation of particles proceeds slowly, by steps, from tiny particles coagulating into slightly larger ones."

"Now, the efficient foraging of salps on particles as small as a fraction of a micrometer introduces a substantial shortcut in this process, since digestion and excretion package these tiny particles into much larger particles, which thus sink a lot faster."

A close-up view of a solitary salp of the same species, with a long chain of babies that has looped around inside it. You can see groups of babies forming that are different sizes and stages of development. (Photo by Larry Madin, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)

This photomicrograph of a chain of aggregate salps shows the embryos of the next solitary generation. Each embryo is a small tube with two white circles attached. (Photo by Larry Madin, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)

I observed this unusual organism during a December 2012 King Tide when I saw several and took this photo. However, determining what they were, exactly, was challenging. So, I contacted Cynthia D. Trowbridge at the Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, and she kindly identified my mystery creature as the salp, Thetys vagina.

This evening in particular was very special. As we stepped into the water, there was an abundance of salps all around us. They swirled around and pulsated through the water. Some chains were metres long and covered every inch of the sea.

Microscopic plants called phytoplankton have gained scientific fame for their key role in transferring carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean, but they now may need to share their spotlight with salps, the jelly-like organisms that feed on them.

Due to their fast sinking rates the carcasses and faecal pellets of these and other large salps play a significant role in carbon transport to the seafloor. We calculated that faecal pellets from these swarms could have contributed up to 67 % of the mean organic daily carbon flux in the area. This suggests that the flux of carbon from salp swarms are not accurately captured in current estimates. e24fc04721