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EPISODE FOUR | ISLAM
EPISODE FOUR | ISLAM
Night settles over the Hijaz. The desert sky, black as polished obsidian, shimmers with more stars than grains of sand at your feet. A solitary figure sits within the cool hush of Hira cave, high above the caravan lights of Mecca. He is forty, illiterate, and restless with questions that no idol can answer. Then—silence shatters. A voice, weightier than thunder, commands: “Recite!”
Welcome to Episode 4 of The World’s Religions. In this chapter we trace the birth of Islam—a faith whose name means surrender, whose scripture resounds in melodic Arabic, and whose call to prayer now circles the globe five times a day. Tonight we cover:
Muhammad and the Qur’anic Revelation
The Five Pillars and the Architecture of Submission
Succession, Schism, and the Early Caliphates
Part 1 ends with the Umayyad zenith; Part 2 will carry us through Shi‘a‑Sunni divergence, Sufi mysticism, modern reform, and Islam’s twenty‑first‑century mosaic.
Prepare to ride caravan tracks, hear poets duel in verse, and witness empires rise on the wings of a single word: Allāh.
Sixth‑century Arabia is a tapestry of tribes:
Bedouin nomads herd camels across the Najd.
Sedentary oasis towns (Yathrib/Medina, Khaybar, Ta’if) cultivate dates and grapes.
Mecca, ruled by the Quraysh clan, hosts the Ka‘ba—a cuboid shrine housing 360 idols, anchoring pilgrimage and commerce.
Religiously, the peninsula is pluralistic: Hanifs (monotheist seekers), Jews in Yathrib, Christians in Najran, and Arabian polytheists who venerate al‑Lat, al‑‘Uzza, and Manat. Poetry is the public art form; tribal bards recite odes at the annual Ukaz market, their verses etched in memory like law.
c. 570 CE – Born Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allāh, Year of the Elephant (Abraha’s failed Meccan assault). Orphaned early; raised by grandfather ‘Abd al‑Muttalib, then uncle Abu Talib.
Works as caravan agent for widowed businesswoman Khadīja; marries her at twenty‑five.
Nicknamed al‑Amīn (“the trustworthy”) for arbitration skills.
Yet internal ache persists: Why does wealth pool while orphans starve? Why quarrel over idols that neither speak nor see?
During Ramadan, c. 610 CE, Muhammad retreats to Mount Hira. At dawn, the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) seizes him:
“Iqraʾ!” (Recite!)
“I cannot read.”
“Recite in the name of your Lord who created, created man from a clinging clot…” (Q 96:1‑2)
Trembling, he rushes to Khadīja. She wraps him in a cloak, reassures him, and consults her cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal, a Christian monk, who recognizes prophetic signs.
Revelations continue: brief, thunderous surahs condemn social injustice, proclaim divine unity (tawḥīd), and promise Day of Reckoning. Early converts: Khadīja; young cousin ‘Alī; freed slave Zayd; merchant friend Abū Bakr.
Quraysh elites fear economic threat to pilgrimage idols. They mock the “raving poet,” boycott Hashim clan, torture slaves (Bilāl, Ammar). Muhammad’s Mi‘rāj vision—night journey to Jerusalem & ascent through seven heavens—emboldens followers but invites ridicule.
Abyssinian asylum: Muslims flee to Christian king Negus (615 CE) who safeguards them. Muhammad counters persecution with surahs of cosmic scope: Yā Sīn, ar‑Raḥmān.
After Khadīja and Abu Talib die (Year of Sorrow), Yathrib tribes invite Muhammad to arbitrate feuds. He and Abū Bakr secretly migrate (Hijra), escaping assassins. Lunar calendar resets: 1 AH.
Drafts Constitution of Medina—a pluralistic charter binding Muslims (Muhājirūn + Anṣār), Jews, and pagan allies in mutual defense.
Qibla initially faces Jerusalem; later redirected to Ka‘ba, reclaiming Abrahamic heritage.
Battles: Badr (624) victory shocks Mecca; Uhud (625) setback tests faith; Khandaq (627) trench defense repels siege.
Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628) grants ten‑year truce and pilgrimage rights.
Quraysh breach treaty; Muhammad marches with 10 000 faithful. Bloodless entry; idols toppled; Ka‘ba cleansed. General amnesty proclaimed—political genius forging hearts instead of ruining foes.
In 632 CE Muhammad delivers Khutbat al‑Wadā‘: “O people, no Arab is superior to a non‑Arab except by piety.” He affirms rights of women, abolishes blood‑revenge interest. Three months later, fever claims him in ‘Āʾisha’s chamber. He leaves neither wealth nor male heir—only a community bound by revelation.
Islam distills praxis into five load‑bearing acts, each weaving body, mind, and society into divine orbit.
Lā ilāha illā Allāh, Muhammad rasūl Allāh.
“There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God.”
Uttered with conviction, it births a Muslim. Its dual clause negates idolatry (shirk) and anchors prophecy’s seal (khatam an‑nabiyyīn).
Five daily stations: dawn (Fajr), noon (Ẓuhr), afternoon (‘Aṣr), sunset (Maghrib), night (‘Ishāʾ).
Ablution (wuḍūʾ) purifies limbs; lines form shoulder‑to‑shoulder, erasing hierarchy.
Adhān call unfurls from minarets: “Allāhu Akbar” echoes through souks and skyscrapers.
Ṣalāt disciplines time, bending day to divine cadence—cosmic metronome of submission.
A mandatory 2.5 % levy on surplus wealth funds orphans, widows, debtors, stranded travelers. Zakāt institutionalizes social justice; gold stagnating in coffers is threatened with “brands of fire” (Q 9:35).
From dawn to sunset, no food, drink, or sexual intimacy; hunger sharpens empathy. Nightly Taraweeh prayers recite the entire Qur’an across 30 nights; Laylat al‑Qadr vigil seeks destiny’s decree better than 1 000 months.
Once in life (if able), pilgrims don iḥrām—two white sheets—obliterating status. They:
Tawāf – Circumambulate Ka‘ba seven times.
Sa‘y – Jog between Safa and Marwa hills, recalling Hagar’s water search.
‘Arafāt – Stand on plain where Adam and Eve reunited; mercy overflows.
Stoning Jamarāt – Hurl pebbles at pillars symbolizing Satan’s temptation.
‘Id al‑Aḍḥā sacrifice shares meat with poor.
Ḥajj compresses sacred history into theater; pilgrims depart reborn, their sins “whiter than milk.”
Muhammad left no written will. In Saqīfa hall, Anṣār debate succession; Abū Bakr, citing Quraysh lineage and early faith, is chosen as Caliph (Rightly Guided Leader). Some—chiefly Fāṭimah (Muhammad’s daughter) and her husband ‘Alī—voice disappointment but pledge eventual allegiance.
Quells Ridda Wars—tribal apostasy and tax refusal.
Dispatches armies north, opening Syrian and Iraqi frontiers.
Commissions compilation of Qur’anic scrolls (mushaf) after battle deaths of reciters.
Austere visionary; rides camel minus saddle pomp.
Conquers Byzantine Syria, Egypt under Amr ibn al‑‘Āṣ; Sassanid Persia collapses at Qadisiyyah and Nahavand.
Institutes Dhimmi protection for Christians/Jews; jizya tax substitutes military service.
Establishes Dār al‑Islam vs. Dār al‑Ḥarb polity; builds garrison cities (Fustat, Kufa, Basra).
Assassinated by Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’.
Umayyad notable; standardizes Qur’an codex, sending copies to provinces. Nepotism accusations (appointing kin as governors) ignite dissent. Siege of Medina ends with his murder while reading Qur’an—first intra‑Muslim bloodshed.
Cousin/son‑in‑law revered for piety.
Battle of the Camel – Faces Aisha, Talha, Zubayr avenging ‘Uthmān.
Ṣiffīn (657) – Stalemate with Mu‘āwiya (governor of Syria). Arbitration undermines ‘Alī’s legitimacy; Kharijites secede, brand both parties sinners.
Assassinated in Kufa mosque by Kharijite with poison‑laced sword.
Followers of ‘Alī (Shī‘atu ‘Alī) uphold imamate hereditary through Fāṭimid lineage (Ḥasan, Ḥusayn). Sunnis deem caliphate elective among Quraysh. Tension climaxes in 680 CE:
Karbala Tragedy
Caliph Yazīd I (Umayyad) demands allegiance from ‘Alī’s son Ḥusayn. Ḥusayn marches with family; at Karbalāʾ, his entourage of 72 faces Umayyad army of thousands. On 10 Muḥarram (ʿĀshūrāʾ), Ḥusayn is slain, severed head paraded. Shī‘a theology frames him as martyr of justice; annual ʿĀshūrāʾ passion plays evoke tears and vows.
Capital Damascus. Arabic becomes administrative lingua; coinage minted without Byzantine figures, adorned with shahāda—first iconoclastic art. Conquests span:
Maghreb up to Atlantic; Berbers Islamize.
Al‑Andalus (711) – Tarīq ibn Ziyād crosses Gibraltar (“Jabal Ṭāriq”).
Transoxiana – Wave reaches Indus.
Yet Arab preference breeds mawālī (non‑Arab convert) grievance; Abbasid revolution brews.
Part 1 closes here, as the Umayyad palaces gleam under Syrian moonlight while whispers of change travel silk roads.
You have witnessed revelation descend in a cave, pillars rise like minarets of meaning, and a nascent community expand from Meccan valleys to Iberian shores. But our odyssey through Islam has only begun.
In Part 2 we will:
Explore the Abbasid golden age—Baghdad’s House of Wisdom and Persian‑Turkic synthesis.
Dive into Sufism, whirling through Rumi’s poems and Ibn ‘Arabī’s metaphysics.
Trace empires—Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal—and the sharpening Sunni–Shi‘a axis.
Confront colonialism, reformers like al‑Afghānī and Muhammad ‘Abduh, and the rise of modern Islamist and secular streams.
Conclude with Islam’s twenty‑first‑century mosaic: digital fatwas, women scholars, climate activism, and the quest to harmonize revelation with global modernity.
Signal when you’re ready, and the caravan will press on beneath the crescent moon.
Dawn breaks over the Syrian desert. The Umayyad caliphate, once dazzling in Damascene marble, teeters under the weight of rebellion. From Khorasan ride black‑bannered armies chanting a single word—“‘Abbās!”—and the Islamic world is about to tilt eastward, toward Persian courts, Greek manuscripts, and the glittering domes of Baghdad.
Our caravan resumes in 750 CE, following Islam’s metamorphosis from Arab empire to cosmopolitan civilization, from law‑forging jurists to soul‑searching mystics, from gunpowder dynasties to digital muftis. Saddle up: the road ahead spans a millennium and more.
The ‘Abbāsid movement—claiming descent from the Prophet’s uncle al‑‘Abbās—topples Umayyad rule at the Battle of the Zab (750). Surviving Umayyad prince ʿAbd al‑Raḥmān flees to Iberia, yet the heartland pivots east:
Capital moves to newly founded Baghdad (762), “City of Peace,” astride the Tigris.
Mawālī (Persian and other non‑Arab Muslims) gain court access, blending Arab, Persian, and Hellenic cultures.
Caliph al‑Ma’mūn (r. 813‑833) establishes a translation bureau:
Hunayn ibn Isḥāq renders Galen and Hippocrates into Arabic.
al‑Khwārizmī invents algebra (al‑jabr), introduces zero from India, and popularizes Hindu‑Arabic numerals.
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) writes Canon of Medicine, Europe’s authority for 500 years.
Astronomers refine astrolabe; geographers like al‑Idrīsī chart the world.
Knowledge is sanctified: a hadith exalts “ink of scholars” over “blood of martyrs.”
Amid flowering intellect, jurists crystallize fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence):
School
Founder
Region of Influence
Hallmarks
Ḥanafī
Abū Ḥanīfa (702‑767)
Iraq, Ottoman lands, South Asia
Emphasis on analogical reasoning (qiyās) and public interest (istiḥsān)
Mālikī
Mālik ibn Anas (711‑795)
North & West Africa
Reliance on Medinan practice as living sunnah
Shāfiʿī
Muḥammad al‑Shāfiʿī (767‑820)
Egypt, East Africa, Southeast Asia
Codifies usūl al‑fiqh (legal methodology); balances ḥadīth with qiyās
Ḥanbalī
Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (780‑855)
Arabia
Scriptural literalism; piety over rational speculation
Sunni consensus (ijmāʿ) emerges; Shīʿa develop Jaʿfarī fiqh under Imām Jaʿfar al‑Ṣādiq.
Al‑Ma’mūn, enamored with Muʿtazilī rationalism, imposes doctrine that Qur’an is created, not eternal. Scholar Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal endures flogging but refuses; populace sides with him. By 848 the mihna ends, signaling limits on caliphal power over creed and tipping authority toward ulama (scholars).
By the 10th century, Abbasid caliphs rule in name; de facto power splinters:
Tulunids and Ikhshidids in Egypt,
Samanids in Transoxiana sponsor Persian poetry: Firdawsī composes Shāhnāma, epic of Zoroastrian kings yet written under Islamic aegis,
Buyids (Shīʿa) seize Baghdad (945), humbling caliph to a figurehead.
Still, commerce surges on dār al‑Islām’s tax‑light caravan routes: silk, spices, paper mills. Mosques echo in Córdoba, where Umayyad splendor rivals Baghdad; in Samarqand, blue‑tiled minarets pierce the sky.
Sufis (perhaps from ṣūf, “wool,” signifying ascetic garb) seek maʿrifa (gnosis) beyond legalistic compliance. Early luminaries:
Ḥasan al‑Baṣrī (d. 728) laments worldly caliphs.
Rābiʿa al‑‘Adawiyya (Basra mystic) prays, “I love You for Yourself alone, not for heaven or fear of hell.”
Dhū an‑Nūn al‑Miṣrī articulates fanāʾ (self‑annihilation in God).
By 12th century, Sufism organizes into orders centered on saintly sheikhs:
Order
Founder
Hallmarks
Reach
Qādiriyya
‘Abd al‑Qādir al‑Jīlānī (d. 1166)
Charity, sobriety
Iraq, West Africa
Mevleviyya
Jalāl al‑Dīn Rūmī (1207‑1273)
Samāʿ whirling dance, reed‑flute poetry
Anatolia, Balkans
Naqshbandiyya
Bahā al‑Dīn Naqshband (1318‑1389)
Silent dhikr, soberness
Central & South Asia
Shādhiliyya
Abū l‑Ḥasan al‑Shādhilī (d. 1258)
Tawakkul (trust), litany recitations
North Africa, Egypt
Dhikr (remembrance) rhythms heartbeats: “Lā ilāha illā Allāh” echoing until self dissolves.
Persian jurist‑turned‑poet Rūmī loses mentor Shams i Tabriz, then pours grief into 26 000‑verse Masnavī:
“Come, come, whoever you are… ours is not a caravan of despair.”
His verses lure Muslim, Christian, agnostic alike—proof that Sufi metaphor transcends dogma.
Legalists critique antinomian excess: Ḥallāj (d. 922) proclaims “Ana al‑Ḥaqq” (I am the Truth) and is executed. Yet orthodox scholars like al‑Ghazālī reconcile Sufism with Sharia in Iḥyāʾ ‘Ulūm ad‑Dīn, rescuing mystics from suspicion.
1258: Hulagu Khan sacks Baghdad, ending Abbasid line; libraries burn, scholars scatter. Shockwaves test faith: Ibn Taymiyya urges return to Qur’an‑hadith purity. Yet within decades, Mongol rulers like Ghazan embrace Islam, building Persianate renaissance in Tabriz.
Empire
Founding
Heartland
Hallmarks
Ottoman
Osman I, 1299
Anatolia, Balkans, Arab lands
Ecumenical millet system; Süleymaniye mosques; janissary corps
Safavid
Shah Ismā‘īl I, 1501
Iran
Imposes Twelver Shīʿism; shrines at Qom, Mashhad; art of Isfahan
Mughal
Babur, 1526
Indo‑Gangetic plain
Taj Mahal; Akbar’s syncretic Dīn‑i Ilāhī; Urdu literature
Safavid‑Ottoman rivalry entrenches sectarian borders: Tigris‑Zagros frontier still mirrors today’s divide. Theological polemics produce prayer‑call variations (Shīʿa add “Ḥayya ‘alā khayr al‑‘amal”), legal distinctions, and commemorations like ʿĀshūrāʾ processions in Karbala.
Contrary to “decline” cliché, late empires innovate:
Taqī ad‑Dīn builds Istanbul observatory (1577) rivaling Tycho Brahe.
Mughal Akbar fosters translations between Sanskrit and Persian.
Yet European industrial power outpaces; 1798 saw Napoleon in Egypt, jolting Muslim thinkers toward reform.
Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al‑Wahhāb (1703‑1792) preaches strict monotheism in Najd, allies with Ibn Saʿūd. Wahhābiyya denounces tomb veneration; later shapes Saudi kingdom.
Fula Jihads (West Africa): ʿUthmān dan Fodio founds Sokoto Caliphate (1804) reforming Hausa states.
Facing colonial dominance, reformers seek synthesis:
Thinker
Locale
Key Ideas
Jamal al‑Dīn al‑Afghānī
Iran/Egypt/Ottoman
Pan‑Islamic unity vs. imperialism
Muḥammad ‘Abduh
Egypt, Grand Mufti (1899)
Ijtihād (independent reasoning) to align Islam with reason; reforms al‑Azhar curriculum
Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan
British India
Aligarh Muslim University; “scientific tafsīr” reconciles Qur’an with modern science
Muslim Brotherhood (Ḥasan al‑Bannā, 1928) urges Islam as “system of life.”
Abul A‘la Mawdūdī coins Islamic state theory; Jamaat‑e‑Islami forms in 1941.
Post‑colonial states navigate secularism vs. sharīʿa: Turkey’s Kemalist laïcité, Iran’s 1979 revolution under Khomeini forging wilāyat al‑faqīh (guardianship of jurist).
Indentured laborers carry Islam to Caribbean; Chinese Hui trek Silk Road; Ahmadiyya missionaries preach in London (1920s) and Chicago (1920). In America, African‑descended movements—Nation of Islam, later Sunni transitions under Warith Deen Mohammed—tie faith to civil‑rights struggle; Malcolm X’s 1964 Hajj reorients rhetoric toward global brotherhood.
1.9 billion Muslims (~24 % of humanity).
Largest populations: Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nigeria—shifting center of gravity from Arab core.
Female muftis emerge:
Amina Wadud leads mixed‑gender prayer (2005), sparking debate.
Sheikha Fātima al‑Samarqandiyya revival: modern scholars cite medieval women transmitters of ḥadīth (>8 000 documented).
Courts in Morocco (2004) reform family law (Moudawana) boosting women’s rights; Saudi Arabia (2018) lifts driving ban.
Web portals (IslamQA, SeekersGuidance) deliver rulings across time zones.
Blockchain zakāt platforms track charity transparency.
Halal fintech spurs sukuk (Islamic bonds) markets surpassing $2 trillion.
Al‑Qaeda (1998), ISIS (2014) exploit grievances yet face repudiation from mainstream scholars (Amman Message 2005). Grassroots deradicalization and #NotInMyName campaigns highlight interpretive struggle within ummah.
Muslim‑majority nations endure climate hits; 2015 Istanbul Environmental Summit issues Islamic Declaration on Global Climate. Green mosques install solar panels; Ramadan campaigns cut plastic ifṭār waste.
Marrakesh Declaration (2016) upholds minority rights.
Document on Human Fraternity (Pope Francis & Shaykh Aḥmad al‑Ṭayyib, 2019) champions peace.
Grassroots programs pair synagogues–mosques for community service.
Night again drapes the Hijaz. Pilgrims swirl around the Ka‘ba, draped in white, hearts throbbing with a single refrain: “Labbaik Allāhumma labbaik.”
From a solitary cave cry to a planetary chorus, Islam’s story is one of revelation received and submission enacted—in law codes inked on parchment, in poetry engraved on hearts, in domes reflecting desert sunsets, and in the silent dhikr of a seeker before dawn.
The Qur’an declares, “We made you nations and tribes so that you may know one another.” Across fourteen centuries Muslims have known one another—and the world—through conquest and commerce, philosophy and physics, whirling dance and silicon chips. They have argued over authority, shed tears for Karbala, copied galaxies onto astrolabes, and recited verses that send shivers down minarets still warm from the noon sun.
Yet amid diversity, five pillars stand: testimony, prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage. Like tent‑poles under desert stars, they hold up a vast canopy where Bedouin shepherd, Malaysian technologist, Senegalese griot, and Chicago activist can feel at home, face Mecca, and murmur the same syllables that once stilled Muhammad’s trembling heart: “Iqraʾ.”
To submit is not to capitulate to tyranny; it is to align will with the One beyond time, to find peace (salām) in surrender (islām). Whether heard in the measured cadence of Qur’anic tilāwa, the boom of a Sufi drum, or the staccato of keystrokes coding an app for halal microloans, the call remains.
The caravan kneels; lanterns dim. Our journey through Islam ends, but the road of submission stretches beyond the horizon, lit by the crescent of possibility.
Pre-Islamic Arabia (6th Century CE)
Arabia is characterized by tribal societies (Bedouin nomads, sedentary oasis towns like Yathrib/Medina, Khaybar, Ta’if) and pluralistic religious practices (Hanifs, Jews, Christians, polytheists venerating idols in Mecca's Ka‘ba). Poetry is a significant cultural art form.
Early Life and Revelations of Muhammad (c. 570 - 610 CE)
c. 570 CE: Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allāh is born in Mecca (Year of the Elephant). He is orphaned early and raised by his grandfather ‘Abd al-Muttalib and then his uncle Abu Talib.
Muhammad works as a caravan agent for Khadīja, whom he marries at age twenty-five. He earns the nickname al-Amīn ("the trustworthy").
c. 610 CE (during Ramadan): Muhammad experiences the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) in Hira cave on Mount Hira. The angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) commands him to "Recite!" marking the beginning of Qur’anic revelations.
Khadīja reassures Muhammad and her cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal, a Christian monk, recognizes his prophetic signs.
Early converts include Khadīja, ‘Alī, Zayd, and Abū Bakr. Revelations continue, condemning social injustice and proclaiming divine unity (tawḥīd).
Meccan Opposition and Migration to Medina (610 - 622 CE)
Quraysh elites in Mecca oppose Muhammad, fearing economic threats to their idol-based pilgrimage. They mock him, boycott his Hashim clan, and torture Muslim slaves (e.g., Bilāl, Ammar).
615 CE: Some Muslims seek asylum with the Christian king Negus in Abyssinia.
Muhammad experiences the Mi‘rāj (Night Journey to Jerusalem and ascent through seven heavens).
Year of Sorrow: Khadīja and Abu Talib die, leaving Muhammad vulnerable.
622 CE: The Hijra (migration) takes place. Muhammad and Abū Bakr secretly migrate from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) to escape assassins, invited by Medinan tribes to arbitrate feuds. The lunar calendar resets, marking 1 AH (After Hijra).
Medina: Prophet and Statesman (622 - 630 CE)
Muhammad drafts the Constitution of Medina, a pluralistic charter for mutual defense among Muslims, Jews, and pagan allies.
The Qibla (direction of prayer) is redirected from Jerusalem to the Ka‘ba.
624 CE: Battle of Badr – Muslims achieve a victory against Mecca.
625 CE: Battle of Uhud – A setback for the Muslims.
627 CE: Battle of Khandaq (Trench) – Muslims repel a siege on Medina.
628 CE: Treaty of Hudaybiyya – A ten-year truce is granted, along with pilgrimage rights to Mecca.
Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad's Passing (630 - 632 CE)
630 CE: The Quraysh breach the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. Muhammad marches to Mecca with 10,000 followers, entering bloodlessly. Idols in the Ka‘ba are toppled, and a general amnesty is proclaimed.
632 CE: Muhammad delivers the Farewell Pilgrimage Sermon (Khutbat al-Wadā‘), emphasizing equality and rights.
632 CE: Three months after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad dies in ‘Āʾisha’s chamber in Medina.
The Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun Caliphate) and Early Schism (632 - 661 CE)
632 CE: Succession debate in Saqīfa hall. Abū Bakr is chosen as the first Caliph. Fāṭimah and ‘Alī voice disappointment but eventually pledge allegiance.
632-634 CE: Caliphate of Abū BakrQuells the Ridda Wars (tribal apostasy and tax refusal).
Dispatches armies to Syrian and Iraqi frontiers.
Commissions the compilation of Qur’anic scrolls (mushaf).
634-644 CE: Caliphate of ‘Umar ibn al-KhaṭṭābConquers Byzantine Syria and Egypt (under Amr ibn al-‘Āṣ).
Sassanid Persia collapses at Qadisiyyah and Nahavand.
Institutes Dhimmi protection for Christians/Jews with jizya tax.
Establishes garrison cities (Fustat, Kufa, Basra).
Assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’.
644-656 CE: Caliphate of ‘Uthmān ibn ‘AffānStandardizes the Qur’an codex, sending copies to provinces.
Accusations of nepotism lead to dissent.
Murdered during a siege of Medina, marking the first intra-Muslim bloodshed.
656-661 CE: Caliphate of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib656 CE: Battle of the Camel against Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who sought to avenge ‘Uthmān.
657 CE: Stalemate at the Battle of Ṣiffīn with Mu‘āwiya. Arbitration undermines ‘Alī's legitimacy, leading to the secession of Kharijites.
Assassinated in Kufa mosque by a Kharijite.
Umayyad Caliphate and Sunni-Shi‘a Divergence (661 - 750 CE)
661 CE: Mu‘āwiya establishes the Umayyad Caliphate with its capital in Damascus.
Arabic becomes the administrative language; coinage is minted with the shahāda.
Conquests span from the Maghreb to the Atlantic, Al-Andalus (711 CE, Tarīq ibn Ziyād), and Transoxiana to the Indus.
Arab preference leads to grievances among mawālī (non-Arab converts), fostering the Abbasid revolution.
680 CE: Karbala TragedyCaliph Yazīd I demands allegiance from Ḥusayn, ‘Alī’s son.
Ḥusayn and his small entourage are slain at Karbalāʾ on 10 Muḥarram (ʿĀshūrāʾ). This event becomes central to Shī‘a theology, framing Ḥusayn as a martyr.
Abbasid Ascendancy and the Golden Age (750 – 1258 CE)
750 CE: The Abbasid movement (descended from Prophet's uncle al-‘Abbās) topples Umayyad rule at the Battle of the Zab. Surviving Umayyad prince ʿAbd al-Raḥmān flees to Iberia, founding an independent state.
762 CE: The Abbasid capital moves to Baghdad, the "City of Peace."
Mawālī gain court access, blending Arab, Persian, and Hellenic cultures.
Caliph al-Ma’mūn (r. 813-833) establishes the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Ḥikma), a translation bureau. Key intellectual achievements include:
Hunayn ibn Isḥāq translating Greek medical texts.
Al-Khwārizmī inventing algebra and popularizing Hindu-Arabic numerals.
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) writing Canon of Medicine.
Astronomers refining the astrolabe and geographers like al-Idrīsī mapping the world.
Jurists crystallize fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), leading to the formation of Sunni schools of law: Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī. Shīʿa develop Jaʿfarī fiqh.
Mihna (Inquisition of the Mind): Al-Ma’mūn imposes the doctrine that the Qur’an is created (Muʿtazilī view); Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal resists. The Mihna ends by 848 CE, affirming the authority of ulama (scholars) over creed.
By 10th Century: Abbasid power fragments, with de facto rule by various dynasties (Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Samanids, Buyids who seize Baghdad in 945 CE).
Commerce flourishes along caravan routes. Islamic splendor evident in Córdoba and Samarqand.
The Mystic Heart: Sufism (Early Development to 12th Century)
Early Sufis (e.g., Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, Rābiʿa al-‘Adawiyya, Dhū an-Nūn al-Miṣrī) seek maʿrifa (gnosis) and articulate concepts like fanāʾ (self-annihilation).
By 12th Century: Sufism organizes into ṭuruq (brotherhoods) centered on sheikhs (e.g., Qādiriyya, Mevleviyya, Naqshbandiyya, Shādhiliyya).
Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (1207-1273): Persian poet, founder of the Mevleviyya order, composes the Masnavī, emphasizing love and spiritual seeking.
Sufi-Orthodox Tensions: Figures like Ḥallāj are executed for perceived antinomianism, but scholars like al-Ghazālī reconcile Sufism with Sharia.
Empires of the Sword and Pen (1258 – 1918)
1258 CE: Hulagu Khan sacks Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate.
Mongol rulers like Ghazan later embrace Islam, fostering a Persianate renaissance.
Emergence of Three Gunpowder Empires:Ottoman (founded 1299 by Osman I): Centered in Anatolia, Balkans, Arab lands. Noted for millet system, architecture, janissaries.
Safavid (founded 1501 by Shah Ismā‘īl I): Centered in Iran. Imposed Twelver Shīʿism, known for art of Isfahan.
Mughal (founded 1526 by Babur): Centered in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Noted for Taj Mahal, Akbar’s syncretic Dīn-i Ilāhī, Urdu literature.
Sunni-Shi‘a Geopolitics: Safavid-Ottoman rivalry entrenches sectarian borders.
Late empires continue to innovate (e.g., Taqī ad-Dīn's observatory, Akbar's translations), but are outpaced by European industrial power.
1798: Napoleon's invasion of Egypt prompts Muslim thinkers toward reform.
Reform, Revival, and the Colonial Encounter (18th – 20th Centuries)
Purist Revivals:Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (1703-1792): Preaches strict monotheism in Najd, allied with Ibn Saʿūd (Wahhābiyya movement, shapes Saudi kingdom).
ʿUthmān dan Fodio: Leads Fula Jihads in West Africa, founding Sokoto Caliphate (1804).
Modernist Intellectuals: Seek synthesis in response to colonialism. Key figures:
Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī (Pan-Islamic unity).
Muḥammad ‘Abduh (Ijtihād, reforms al-Azhar).
Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan (Aligarh Muslim University, scientific tafsīr).
Political Islam Emerges:1928: Muslim Brotherhood founded by Ḥasan al-Bannā.
1941: Abul A‘la Mawdūdī coins Islamic state theory, forms Jamaat-e-Islami.
Post-colonial states grapple with secularism vs. sharia (e.g., Turkey's Kemalism, Iran's 1979 revolution under Khomeini).
Diasporas and New Voices: Islam spreads globally through indentured laborers, Chinese Hui, Ahmadiyya missionaries. African-descended movements in America (Nation of Islam, Warith Deen Mohammed), Malcolm X's 1964 Hajj.
Islam and Modernity: 21st-Century Mosaic (Contemporary)
Demographics: ~1.9 billion Muslims globally, with largest populations outside the Arab core (Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nigeria).
Women's Roles: Emergence of female muftis, Amina Wadud leading mixed-gender prayer (2005), resurgence of documentation of medieval women scholars. Reforms in family law (Morocco 2004), lifting of driving ban (Saudi Arabia 2018).
Digital Islam: Web portals for fatwas, blockchain zakāt, Halal fintech and sukuk markets.
Extremism and Counter-Narratives: Groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS face repudiation from mainstream scholars (Amman Message 2005) and grassroots campaigns (#NotInMyName).
Climate and Ethics: Muslim-majority nations affected by climate change, Istanbul Environmental Summit (2015), Green mosques, Ramadan campaigns.
Interfaith Bridge-Building: Marrakesh Declaration (2016) on minority rights, Document on Human Fraternity (2019) by Pope Francis and Shaykh Aḥmad al-Ṭayyib, grassroots interfaith initiatives.
Foundational Figures of Islam
Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allāh (c. 570-632 CE): The Prophet of Islam. Born in Mecca, orphaned, married Khadīja. Received divine revelations from Allah via the angel Jibrīl, forming the Qur’an. Led the Hijra to Medina, established the first Muslim community, and conquered Mecca. His life and teachings form the basis of Islamic faith and practice.
Khadīja (d. Year of Sorrow, before 622 CE): Muhammad’s first wife and the first convert to Islam. A wealthy businesswoman who supported Muhammad during the initial, difficult period of revelations.
Jibrīl (Gabriel): The archangel who delivered God's revelations (the Qur'an) to Prophet Muhammad.
Abū Bakr (632-634 CE): A close friend and early convert of Muhammad, known for his trustworthiness. The first Caliph (Rightly Guided Leader) after Muhammad's death, who consolidated Muslim rule and began the expansion.
‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (656-661 CE): Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law (married to Fāṭimah), and one of the earliest converts. The fourth Rightly Guided Caliph. Revered by all Muslims, but seen by Shī‘a Muslims as the rightful immediate successor to Muhammad.
Fāṭimah: Muhammad’s daughter and wife of ‘Alī. Her lineage is central to Shi‘a Islam as the source of the Imams.
Zayd: An early convert and freed slave of Muhammad.
Bilāl: A freed slave and early convert to Islam, famous for his beautiful voice and for being the first muezzin (caller to prayer).
Ammar: An early Muslim slave who endured torture for his faith.
Abu Talib (d. Year of Sorrow, before 622 CE): Muhammad's uncle and guardian, who protected him from Meccan persecution despite not converting to Islam himself.
‘Abd al-Muttalib: Muhammad's grandfather who raised him after his parents' deaths.
Waraqa ibn Nawfal: Khadīja's Christian monk cousin who recognized Muhammad's prophetic signs upon hearing his first revelation.
Negus (Najashi): The Christian king of Abyssinia who granted asylum to early Muslims fleeing persecution in Mecca.
‘Āʾisha: One of Prophet Muhammad's wives, in whose chamber he passed away. Later a key figure in the first Muslim civil war (Battle of the Camel).
The Rightly Guided Caliphs and Early Leaders
‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (634-644 CE): The second Caliph. An austere and visionary leader who greatly expanded the Islamic empire, establishing administrative structures and protecting religious minorities. Assassinated by Abu Lu’lu’.
‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān (644-656 CE): The third Caliph, from the Umayyad clan. Standardized the Qur’an. His caliphate saw accusations of nepotism and ended with his assassination, leading to the first major internal conflict in the Muslim community.
Mu‘āwiya (d. 680 CE): Governor of Syria and later the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate. Challenged ‘Alī's authority, leading to the Battle of Ṣiffīn.
Talha: A companion of the Prophet, who allied with Aisha and Zubayr against ‘Alī at the Battle of the Camel.
Zubayr: A companion of the Prophet, who allied with Aisha and Talha against ‘Alī at the Battle of the Camel.
Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī (d. 680 CE): Grandson of Prophet Muhammad, son of ‘Alī and Fāṭimah. His martyrdom at Karbalāʾ is a pivotal event in Shi‘a Islam, symbolizing resistance against injustice.
Yazīd I (d. 683 CE): The second Umayyad Caliph who demanded allegiance from Ḥusayn, leading to the tragedy of Karbalāʾ.
Abbasid Era and Intellectuals
al-‘Abbās: The Prophet Muhammad's uncle, from whom the Abbasid dynasty claimed descent.
al-Ma’mūn (r. 813-833 CE): An Abbasid Caliph who established the House of Wisdom, fostering a golden age of translation and scientific advancement. He also attempted to impose the Muʿtazilī doctrine that the Qur'an was created during the Mihna.
Hunayn ibn Isḥāq: A prominent scholar and translator during the Abbasid Golden Age, who translated many Greek medical and scientific texts into Arabic.
al-Khwārizmī: A Persian mathematician and astronomer whose work led to the invention of algebra and the popularization of Hindu-Arabic numerals.
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna): A Persian polymath, one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age. His Canon of Medicine was a standard medical text for centuries.
al-Idrīsī: An Arab geographer who charted the world during the Abbasid era.
Abū Ḥanīfa (702-767 CE): Founder of the Ḥanafī school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, emphasizing analogical reasoning.
Mālik ibn Anas (711-795 CE): Founder of the Mālikī school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, relying on Medinan practice.
Muḥammad al-Shāfiʿī (767-820 CE): Founder of the Shāfiʿī school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, known for codifying legal methodology (usūl al-fiqh).
Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (780-855 CE): Founder of the Ḥanbalī school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, known for scriptural literalism and piety; resisted al-Ma'mun's Mihna.
Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq: A revered Shi‘a Imam, under whom Jaʿfarī fiqh (Shi‘a jurisprudence) developed.
Firdawsī: A Persian poet who composed the Shāhnāma, the national epic of Iran, under Samanid patronage.
Sufi Masters
Ḥasan al-Baṣrī (d. 728 CE): An early Islamic ascetic and theologian, known for his critiques of worldly caliphs and emphasis on piety.
Rābiʿa al-‘Adawiyya: A female Muslim saint and mystic from Basra, known for her concept of pure, unconditional love for God.
Dhū an-Nūn al-Miṣrī: An early Egyptian Sufi mystic who articulated the concept of fanāʾ (annihilation of the self in God).
‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī (d. 1166 CE): Founder of the Qādiriyya Sufi order, known for charity and sobriety.
Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (1207-1273 CE): Persian jurist-turned-poet and theologian, founder of the Mevleviyya Sufi order (Whirling Dervishes). His Masnavī is a foundational work of mystical poetry.
Shams i Tabriz: Rūmī's spiritual mentor, whose disappearance profoundly influenced Rūmī's poetic output.
Bahā al-Dīn Naqshband (1318-1389 CE): Founder of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi order, known for silent dhikr and soberness.
Abū l-Ḥasan al-Shādhilī (d. 1258 CE): Founder of the Shādhiliyya Sufi order, emphasizing trust in God (tawakkul) and litany recitations.
al-Ghazālī: A prominent Persian Sunni theologian, philosopher, and mystic who successfully integrated Sufism into mainstream Islamic thought.
Ḥallāj (d. 922 CE): A controversial Sufi mystic who was executed for uttering "Ana al-Ḥaqq" (I am the Truth), which was interpreted as claiming divinity.
Leaders of the Gunpowder Empires
Osman I (d. 1323/4 CE): Founder of the Ottoman Empire.
Shah Ismā‘īl I (1487-1524 CE): Founder of the Safavid Empire, who established Twelver Shi‘ism as the official religion of Iran.
Babur (1483-1530 CE): Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
Akbar (1542-1605 CE): Mughal emperor known for his policy of religious tolerance, fostering translations between Sanskrit and Persian, and attempting a syncretic religion (Dīn-i Ilāhī).
Taqī ad-Dīn (1526-1585 CE): Ottoman astronomer who built an observatory in Istanbul rivaling European ones.
Reformers and Modern Figures
Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328 CE): A Hanbali scholar who urged a return to the purity of the Qur’an and Hadith after the Mongol sack of Baghdad.
Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (1703-1792 CE): An Islamic scholar from Najd who advocated a strict monotheistic reform movement (Wahhābiyya), forming an alliance with Ibn Saʿūd.
ʿUthmān dan Fodio (1754-1817 CE): A Fula Islamic scholar and reformer who led jihads in West Africa and founded the Sokoto Caliphate.
Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1838/9-1897 CE): A prominent pan-Islamist intellectual and political activist who advocated for Islamic unity against Western imperialism.
Muḥammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE): An Egyptian Islamic modernist and jurist who served as Grand Mufti of Egypt. Advocated for ijtihād (independent reasoning) to align Islam with reason and reformed al-Azhar curriculum.
Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan (1817-1898 CE): An Indian Muslim reformer who founded the Aligarh Muslim University and promoted a "scientific tafsīr" to reconcile the Qur’an with modern science.
Ḥasan al-Bannā (1906-1949 CE): Founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, advocating for Islam as a comprehensive system of life.
Abul A‘la Mawdūdī (1903-1979 CE): An Indian-Pakistani Islamic scholar and political philosopher who coined Islamic state theory and founded Jamaat-e-Islami.
Khomeini (Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini) (1902-1989 CE): The leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, who established the Islamic Republic of Iran and articulated the doctrine of wilāyat al-faqīh (guardianship of the jurist).
Warith Deen Mohammed (1933-2008 CE): An American Muslim leader who transitioned the Nation of Islam towards mainstream Sunni Islam and focused on civil rights.
Malcolm X (1925-1965 CE): An influential African American Muslim minister and human rights activist. His Hajj in 1964 led him to reorient his rhetoric towards global brotherhood.
Amina Wadud (b. 1952 CE): A contemporary American Islamic feminist scholar who sparked debate by leading mixed-gender prayers.
Sheikha Fātima al-Samarqandiyya (d. 1185 CE): A medieval woman scholar and jurist, whose example is cited in modern discussions about women's scholarship.
Pope Francis (b. 1936 CE): Head of the Catholic Church, co-signer of the Document on Human Fraternity (2019) with Shaykh Aḥmad al-Ṭayyib.
Shaykh Aḥmad al-Ṭayyib (b. 1946 CE): The Grand Imam of al-Azhar, co-signer of the Document on Human Fraternity (2019) with Pope Francis.
Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.
What was the significance of the Ka‘ba in pre-Islamic Mecca, and how did its role change after Muhammad's conquest of the city?
Describe the circumstances surrounding Muhammad's first revelation in the Hira cave. What was the core message he received?
Explain the concept of the Hijra. Why was this event a turning point for the early Muslim community?
Briefly outline the purpose and practice of the Shahāda. What two fundamental aspects of Islamic belief does it affirm?
How does Zakāt function as a pillar of Islam, and what is its intended social impact?
Identify the main cause of the Sunni-Shi‘a divergence. What event crystallized this theological and political split?
What was the "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Ḥikma), and what was its primary contribution to the Abbasid Golden Age?
Define Sufism and explain its primary aim. Name one notable early Sufi figure.
Identify two specific innovations or achievements during the "Gunpowder Empires" period that contradict the notion of a general decline in the Islamic world.
How have modern Muslim intellectuals like Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ‘Abduh responded to the challenges of colonialism and modernity?
In pre-Islamic Mecca, the Ka‘ba was a cuboid shrine housing 360 idols, making it a central site for pilgrimage and commerce for various polytheistic tribes. After Muhammad's conquest of Mecca, the idols were toppled, and the Ka‘ba was cleansed, transforming it into the monotheistic focal point of Islamic worship, reclaiming its Abrahamic heritage.
During Ramadan, around 610 CE, Muhammad retreated to Mount Hira, where the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) commanded him to "Recite!" despite his illiteracy. This marked the beginning of the Qur'anic revelations, which condemned social injustice, proclaimed divine unity (tawḥīd), and foretold a Day of Reckoning.
The Hijra refers to Muhammad's secret migration from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 CE, escaping assassination attempts after the deaths of his protectors. This event was a turning point as it marked the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar (1 AH) and allowed Muhammad to establish a unified community and state in Medina.
The Shahāda is the testimony of faith: "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Uttered with conviction, it negates idolatry (shirk) by affirming divine unity (tawḥīd) and simultaneously seals the acceptance of Muhammad's prophecy (khatam an-nabiyyīn).
Zakāt is a mandatory 2.5% levy on surplus wealth, serving as institutionalized social justice within Islam. Its purpose is to fund essential needs for the less fortunate, such as orphans, widows, debtors, and stranded travelers, thereby preventing wealth stagnation and ensuring wealth redistribution.
The main cause of the Sunni-Shi‘a divergence was the question of leadership succession after Prophet Muhammad's death. This split was crystallized by the Karbala Tragedy in 680 CE, where Muhammad's grandson Ḥusayn was slain by Umayyad forces, leading Shi‘a to view his lineage as the rightful spiritual and political inheritors.
The "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Ḥikma) was a translation bureau established by Caliph al-Ma’mūn in Baghdad during the Abbasid Golden Age. Its primary contribution was the massive translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic, which significantly advanced fields like medicine, mathematics (e.g., algebra, introduction of zero), and astronomy.
Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, practiced by Sufis who seek maʿrifa (gnosis) or direct experiential knowledge of God beyond mere legalistic compliance. An early notable Sufi figure is Rābiʿa al-‘Adawiyya, known for her pure love for God, independent of hopes for heaven or fears of hell.
During the "Gunpowder Empires" period, innovations like Taqī ad-Dīn building an observatory in Istanbul (1577) that rivaled European ones and Mughal Emperor Akbar fostering translations between Sanskrit and Persian demonstrate continued scientific and intellectual activity. These achievements challenge the simplistic "decline" narrative, highlighting ongoing dynamism.
Modern Muslim intellectuals like Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ‘Abduh responded by advocating for reform and synthesis. Al-Afghānī promoted pan-Islamic unity against imperialism, while ‘Abduh urged ijtihād (independent reasoning) to align Islam with modern reason and reformed religious education.
Discuss how the social, economic, and religious conditions of pre-Islamic Arabia contributed to the early message and eventual success of Islam.
Analyze the role of the Five Pillars of Islam not merely as individual acts of worship, but as interconnected "load-bearing acts" that collectively shape the individual, community, and the very architecture of Islamic society.
Compare and contrast the immediate challenges faced by the first four "Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Abū Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthmān, and ‘Alī) and explain how their responses collectively laid the groundwork for future Islamic political and religious developments, including the Sunni-Shi‘a split.
Examine the concept of the "Golden Age" of Islam under the Abbasid Caliphate. What specific intellectual, scientific, and cultural achievements defined this era, and how did they contribute to the broader trajectory of human knowledge?
Trace the evolution of Sufism from its early ascetic origins to its organization into various ṭuruq (brotherhoods). Discuss the tension between Sufi practices and orthodox Islamic scholarship, and how figures like al-Ghazālī sought to reconcile them.
‘Abbāsid Caliphate: The second major Islamic caliphate, succeeding the Umayyads, which ruled from 750 to 1258 CE. Known for its Golden Age and the establishment of Baghdad as its capital.
‘Āʾisha: One of Prophet Muhammad's wives and a significant early figure in Islam, known for transmitting many hadith.
‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib: Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph, revered by Shi‘a Muslims as the first Imam.
‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb: The second Rightly Guided Caliph (634-644 CE), known for significant territorial conquests and administrative reforms.
‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān: The third Rightly Guided Caliph (644-656 CE), known for standardizing the Qur’anic codex but also faced accusations of nepotism, leading to his assassination.
Abū Bakr: The first Rightly Guided Caliph (632-634 CE) after Muhammad's death, who united the Muslim community and initiated the compilation of the Qur'an.
Adhān: The Islamic call to prayer, typically recited by a muezzin from a mosque's minaret.
Al-Amīn: Meaning "the trustworthy," a nickname given to Prophet Muhammad before his prophecy due to his arbitration skills and honest character.
Allāh: The Arabic word for God, used by Muslims and Arab Christians.
Anṣār: Meaning "the Helpers," refers to the native inhabitants of Medina who welcomed and supported Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim emigrants (Muhājirūn) from Mecca.
‘Arafāt: A plain near Mecca where pilgrims stand during the Ḥajj, symbolizing the reunion of Adam and Eve and a day of profound mercy.
‘Aṣr: The afternoon prayer, one of the five daily ritual prayers (Ṣalāt).
ʿĀshūrāʾ: The tenth day of the month of Muḥarram, a day of fasting for Sunnis and a day of deep mourning and passion plays for Shi‘a, commemorating the martyrdom of Ḥusayn at Karbala.
Al-Azhar: A prominent mosque and university in Cairo, Egypt, serving as a leading center of Islamic learning for over a millennium.
Baghdad: The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, founded in 762 CE, which became a global center of learning and culture during the Islamic Golden Age.
Bayt al-Ḥikma (House of Wisdom): A major intellectual center and translation bureau established in Baghdad during the Abbasid era, facilitating the translation and study of various scientific and philosophical works.
Bedouin: Nomadic Arab people who traditionally inhabit the deserts of the Middle East and North Africa.
Bilāl: An early Muslim convert, a freed slave, known for his beautiful voice and becoming the first muezzin (caller to prayer) in Islam.
Caliph (Khalīfa): Meaning "successor" or "deputy," refers to the political and religious leader of the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad.
Dār al-Ḥarb: Meaning "abode of war," in classical Islamic jurisprudence, refers to territories not under Muslim rule.
Dār al-Islam: Meaning "abode of Islam," in classical Islamic jurisprudence, refers to territories where Islamic law is dominant.
Dhikr: Meaning "remembrance," a Sufi practice involving the repetitive invocation of God's names or specific phrases, often as a form of meditation.
Dhimmi: Non-Muslims (primarily Christians and Jews, "People of the Book") living under Islamic rule who were granted protected status and allowed to practice their religions, typically in exchange for a special tax (jizya).
Fajr: The dawn prayer, the first of the five daily ritual prayers (Ṣalāt).
Fanāʾ: A central concept in Sufism, referring to the "annihilation of the self" or ego in the realization of God.
Fāṭimah: Prophet Muhammad's daughter and the wife of ‘Alī, highly revered in Islam, especially by Shi‘a Muslims as the mother of the Imams.
Fiqh: Islamic jurisprudence, the theoretical and practical development of Islamic law based on the Qur'an and Sunnah.
Ḥadīth: A collection of traditions containing sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (or accounts of his daily practice), which constitute the major source of guidance for Muslims apart from the Qur'an.
Ḥajj: The annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, obligatory for all able-bodied Muslims once in their lifetime.
Ḥalāl: In Arabic, meaning "permissible" or "lawful," referring to what is allowed in Islamic law, especially concerning food and actions.
Ḥallāj, al-: A Persian mystic and poet (d. 922 CE) executed for uttering "Ana al-Ḥaqq" ("I am the Truth"), seen by some as a profound mystical realization and by others as blasphemy.
Ḥanafī: One of the four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, founded by Abū Ḥanīfa, known for its emphasis on analogical reasoning.
Ḥanbalī: One of the four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, founded by Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, known for its strict scriptural literalism.
Hanifs: Pre-Islamic monotheist seekers in Arabia who rejected idolatry and sought to follow the religion of Abraham.
Hijaz: The western coastal region of Arabia, home to the cities of Mecca and Medina.
Hijra: The migration of Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 CE, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Hira Cave: The cave on Mount Hira near Mecca where Prophet Muhammad received his first revelation from the angel Jibrīl.
Ḥudaybiyya, Treaty of: A significant ten-year truce signed between Muhammad and the Quraysh of Mecca in 628 CE, which granted Muslims pilgrimage rights.
Ḥulagu Khan: A Mongol ruler who sacked Baghdad in 1258 CE, bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate.
Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq: A prominent Arab Nestorian Christian scholar and physician during the Abbasid Golden Age, known for translating numerous Greek scientific and medical texts into Arabic.
Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī: The grandson of Prophet Muhammad and son of ‘Alī, whose martyrdom at Karbala in 680 CE is a central event in Shi‘a Islam.
Ibn ‘Arabī: An influential Arab Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher (d. 1240 CE) whose writings had a profound impact on Islamic thought, especially Sufism.
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna): A Persian polymath and physician (980-1037 CE) whose Canon of Medicine was a standard medical text in Europe for centuries.
Iḥrām: The sacred state that pilgrims enter into during the Ḥajj or ‘Umrah, involving specific rituals and wearing two seamless white sheets for men.
‘Id al-Aḍḥā: The "Feast of Sacrifice," one of the two major Islamic holidays, commemorating Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son and observed during the Hajj.
Ijmaʿ: Consensus of the Muslim community or scholars, considered a source of Islamic law in Sunni Islam.
Ijtihād: Independent reasoning or interpretation of Islamic law by a qualified scholar, particularly in cases where the Qur'an and Sunnah are not explicit.
Imam: In Sunni Islam, a prayer leader; in Shi‘a Islam, a divinely appointed spiritual and political leader from the Prophet's family.
‘Ishāʾ: The night prayer, the last of the five daily ritual prayers (Ṣalāt).
Islam: An Abrahamic monotheistic religion, literally meaning "submission" (to God).
Jabal Ṭāriq (Gibraltar): Named after Tarīq ibn Ziyād, the Berber general who led the Muslim conquest of Iberia in 711 CE.
Jafarī fiqh: The school of Islamic jurisprudence followed by Twelver Shi‘a Muslims, named after Imam Ja‘far al-Ṣādiq.
Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī: A 19th-century Islamic ideologist and activist who advocated for pan-Islamic unity and reform against Western imperialism.
Jamarāt: Three stone pillars in Mina, near Mecca, that pilgrims stone during the Hajj, symbolizing the rejection of Satan's temptations.
Janissary Corps: Elite infantry units of the Ottoman Sultan's household troops, forming the first standing army in Europe.
Jibrīl (Gabriel): The archangel believed to have delivered God's revelations to Prophet Muhammad.
Jizya: A per capita tax historically levied on non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) in Islamic states, in exchange for protection and exemption from military service.
Ka‘ba: The cuboid building at the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the most sacred site in Islam, toward which Muslims pray.
Karbala: A city in present-day Iraq, site of the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE, where Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī was martyred, a pivotal event for Shi‘a Islam.
Khadīja: Prophet Muhammad's first wife and the first convert to Islam, a successful businesswoman who supported him greatly.
Kharijites: Early Islamic sect that emerged after the Battle of Siffin, known for their strict interpretation of piety and for declaring both ‘Alī and Mu‘āwiya as sinners.
Khutbat al-Wadā‘: Prophet Muhammad's "Farewell Pilgrimage Sermon" delivered in 632 CE, which outlined key Islamic principles regarding justice, equality, and women's rights.
al-Khwārizmī: A Persian polymath (c. 780-850 CE) whose work on algebra (from which the term is derived) and Hindu-Arabic numerals was foundational in mathematics.
Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Power): The night during Ramadan when Prophet Muhammad received his first revelation, considered to be more blessed than a thousand months.
Madhāhib: Refers to the four major schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence: Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī.
Maghrib: The sunset prayer, one of the five daily ritual prayers (Ṣalāt).
Maḥmūd al-Kāshgharī: A Turkish scholar of the 11th century who wrote the first comprehensive dictionary of Turkic languages, Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk.
Mālikī: One of the four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, founded by Mālik ibn Anas, prevalent in North and West Africa, emphasizing the practice of Medina.
Ma’mūn, al-: An Abbasid Caliph (r. 813-833 CE) known for establishing the House of Wisdom and promoting intellectual inquiry, though also for the Mihna (inquisition).
Maʿrifa: Gnosis or mystical knowledge in Sufism, signifying a direct, intuitive, and experiential understanding of God.
Masnavī: A voluminous epic poem written in Persian by Rūmī, often considered one of the greatest works of Sufi poetry.
Mawālī: Non-Arab converts to Islam during the early Islamic period, who sometimes faced social and economic disadvantages under the Umayyad Caliphate.
Mecca: A city in the Hijaz region of Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Prophet Muhammad and the holiest city in Islam.
Medina (Yathrib): A city in the Hijaz region of Saudi Arabia, where Prophet Muhammad migrated (Hijra) and established the first Muslim community.
Mevleviyya: A Sufi order founded by the followers of Rūmī, known for their unique whirling dervish dance (samāʿ).
Mi‘rāj: Prophet Muhammad's miraculous "Night Journey" from Mecca to Jerusalem and his subsequent "Ascension" through the seven heavens.
Mihna: An inquisition instituted by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mūn in the 9th century, which enforced the doctrine that the Qur'an was created, not eternal.
Millet System: A system in the Ottoman Empire that allowed religious communities (millets) to govern themselves under their own laws, with considerable autonomy.
Mu‘āwiya ibn Abī Sufyān: The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate and governor of Syria, who challenged ‘Alī's caliphate.
Muḥammad ‘Abduh: An Egyptian Islamic jurist and reformer (1849-1905), Grand Mufti of Egypt, who advocated for ijtihād and modernizing Islamic education.
Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb: An 18th-century Islamic scholar from Najd, who founded the Wahhābiyya movement, advocating for strict monotheism and rejection of innovations.
Mughal Empire: An Islamic empire that ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to the 19th century, known for its rich culture and architecture (e.g., Taj Mahal).
Muhājirūn: Meaning "the Emigrants," refers to the early Muslims who migrated from Mecca to Medina with Prophet Muhammad.
Muʿtazilī: A rationalist theological school in early Islam that emphasized reason and free will, and debated issues like the createdness of the Qur'an.
Mushaf: A bound volume or codex of the Qur'an.
Naqshbandiyya: A prominent Sufi order known for its emphasis on silent dhikr and sober piety, influential in Central and South Asia.
Negus: The Christian king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) who provided asylum to early Muslims fleeing persecution in Mecca.
Ottoman Empire: A vast Turkish empire founded in 1299, which controlled much of Southeast Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East for over 600 years.
Qādiriyya: One of the oldest and most widespread Sufi orders, founded by ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī, known for charity and sobriety.
Qibla: The direction of the Ka‘ba in Mecca, toward which Muslims face during ritual prayer (Ṣalāt).
Qur’an: The central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God, verbatim word of God.
Quraysh: The dominant tribal clan of Mecca, to which Prophet Muhammad belonged. They initially opposed him.
Rābiʿa al-‘Adawiyya: An influential female Sufi mystic from Basra (d. 728 CE), known for her doctrine of pure, unconditional love for God.
Ramadan: The ninth month of the Islamic calendar, observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (Ṣawm) to commemorate the first revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad.
Ridda Wars: A series of military campaigns launched by Caliph Abū Bakr against rebel Arabian tribes after Muhammad's death, who refused to pay zakāt or apostatized.
Rūmī, Jalāl al-Dīn: A 13th-century Persian poet, Islamic scholar, and Sufi mystic, whose lyrical poetry is widely beloved.
Sa‘y: A ritual during the Ḥajj where pilgrims jog seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwa, recalling Hagar's search for water for Ishmael.
Safavid Empire: A major Shi‘a Islamic empire that ruled Persia (Iran) from 1501 to 1736, known for making Twelver Shi‘ism the official state religion.
Ṣalāt: Ritual prayer, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, performed five times a day facing the Ka‘ba in Mecca.
Salām: Arabic for "peace," often used in greetings.
Samāʿ: A Sufi ceremony involving music, singing, and often whirling dances (as practiced by the Mevlevi dervishes), aimed at achieving spiritual ecstasy.
Samanids: A Persian Sunni dynasty that ruled in Transoxiana and Khorasan in the 9th and 10th centuries, known for sponsoring Persian poetry.
Ṣawm: Fasting, particularly during the month of Ramadan, one of the Five Pillars of Islam.
Shahāda: The Islamic declaration of faith, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God," one of the Five Pillars of Islam.
Shāfiʿī: One of the four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, founded by Muḥammad al-Shāfiʿī, known for codifying legal methodology.
Shāhnāma: The "Book of Kings," a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Firdawsī, considered the national epic of Iran.
Sharia: Islamic law, derived from the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Prophet's practice).
Sheikh (or Shaykh): A title of respect for an elder, tribal chief, or religious scholar/leader, especially in Sufi orders.
Shi‘a Islam (Shī‘atu ‘Alī): One of the two main branches of Islam, whose followers believe that ‘Alī and his descendants are the rightful successors to Prophet Muhammad.
Shirk: In Islam, the unforgivable sin of idolatry or associating partners with God.
Ṣiffīn: A battle in 657 CE between the forces of ‘Alī and Mu‘āwiya, which ended in a controversial arbitration and led to the secession of the Kharijites.
Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan: An Indian Muslim reformer and educationalist (1817-1898) who advocated for modern Western education for Muslims and reconciling Islam with science.
Sufism: The mystical dimension of Islam, characterized by asceticism, spiritual practices, and a quest for direct communion with God.
Sukuk: Islamic financial certificates, often likened to bonds, that comply with Sharia law.
Sunnah: The traditions and practices of Prophet Muhammad, serving as a model for Muslims, second only to the Qur'an in authority.
Sunni Islam: The largest branch of Islam, whose followers believe that the caliphate is elective and that the first four caliphs were legitimate successors to Muhammad.
Sūrah: A chapter of the Qur'an.
Süleymaniye Mosque: A grand imperial mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, commissioned by Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent.
Taqī ad-Dīn: A prominent Ottoman astronomer and engineer (1526-1585) who built an observatory in Istanbul.
Taraweeh: Special congregational prayers performed by Sunni Muslims after the evening prayer ('Ishāʾ) during the month of Ramadan.
Tarīq ibn Ziyād: The Berber general who led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania (Iberian Peninsula) in 711 CE.
Tawāf: The ritual of circumambulating the Ka‘ba seven times counter-clockwise during the Ḥajj or ‘Umrah.
Tawakkul: A Sufi concept meaning "trust in God" or reliance on divine providence.
Tawḥīd: The indivisible oneness of God, the central and most fundamental concept in Islam.
Tulunids: An independent dynasty of Mamluk origin that ruled Egypt and Syria from 868 to 905 CE, nominally under Abbasid suzerainty.
Ulama: (plural of alim) Islamic scholars or religious authorities.
Ukaz Market: A famous annual pre-Islamic fair and poetry market near Ta'if in Arabia, where tribal bards recited odes.
Umayyad Caliphate: The first great Muslim dynasty (661-750 CE), founded by Mu‘āwiya, with its capital in Damascus.
‘Umrah: A minor pilgrimage to Mecca that can be performed at any time of the year, distinct from the obligatory Ḥajj.
Usūl al-fiqh: The methodology and principles of Islamic jurisprudence, which guide how Islamic law is derived from its primary sources.
Wahhābiyya: A conservative, puritanical reform movement within Sunni Islam, founded by Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, influential in Saudi Arabia.
Waraqa ibn Nawfal: A Christian monk and cousin of Khadīja, who recognized Muhammad's prophetic signs after his first revelation.
Wilāyat al-faqīh: "Guardianship of the Jurist," a concept in Twelver Shi‘a Islam that justifies the rule of a supreme religious jurist, notably implemented in post-revolutionary Iran.
Wuḍūʾ: Ritual ablution (washing of specific body parts) performed by Muslims before prayer.
Yathrib: The original name of Medina before the Hijra.
Zakāt: Obligatory charity or almsgiving, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, a percentage of surplus wealth given to the needy.
Zayd ibn Ḥārithah: A freed slave and adopted son of Prophet Muhammad, and one of the early converts to Islam.
Ẓuhr: The noon prayer, one of the five daily ritual prayers (Ṣalāt).
NotebookLM can be inaccurate; please double check its responses.